TIDBITS OF INFO- MINER INTEREST

rehab · TIDBITS OF INFO- MINER INTEREST

EMJ 1922

Underground Mining in City Construction

CYNICISM, and perhaps disappointment, prompted the definition of a mine as a hole in the ground owned by a liar. Curiously enough, despite the frequent evidence of corruption in city politics, no one has associated the holes made in the ground and leading to and under a modern city with mendacity.

In the current issue of “The American Magazine” Mr. Richard Kent submits an amazing array of figures that illustrate the immensity and complexity of the subterranean construction completed and pending in and around the island of Manhattan. Open-cut excavation, the sinking of shafts, the driving of tunnels, the use of explosives, provision for adequate ventilation —these are all within the field of mining engineering; yet one finishes the article with the impression that no member of the mining industry has participated in this work.

A cramped municipality must of necessity go underground to provide conduits for traffic, for mail transport, power, artificial light, and heat, and telephone and telegraphic communication. Two hundred million dollars ‘was the cost of the Catskill Aqueduct—to bring water to New York City. And’, quotes Mr. Kent.

“At its lower end, for a distance of fifteen miles or more, at a depth of from thirty to eighty feet, this aqueduct will pass under the city—under Central Park, down Broadway and Sixth Avenue, under Fifth Avenue at Madison Square, under the East River at Delancey Street to Brooklyn; then under the harbor ‘to Staten Island U’ This record of construction in itself is a gigantic mining enterprise.

More and more is passenger traffic in the city being deflected from the streets. New York possesses nearly two hundred miles of underground railroad tunnels and nearly 800 miles of track. In parts this is so far from the surface ‘that elevator shafts are necessary to connect train platforms with the street sidewalks above. Vehicular traffic into and out of a congested region such as Manhattan Island is being facilitated by tunnel approaches.

Witness, for instance, the Holland Tunnel connecting New York and New Jersey recently completed at a cost of about $50,000,000. In essentials of design and construction it was a mining engineering job. Perhaps the average mining engineer could learn something from the elaborate system of forced-draft ventilation that keeps the atmosphere in the tunnel free from a dangerous proportion of poisonous fumes—the result of an exhaustive research conducted by engineers on the staff of the U. S. Bureau of Mines at Pittsburgh.

Underground mining in a city serves purposes other than for traffic and water supply. Pneumatic transport of mail appreciably diminishes congestion in the streets above. The New York system of tubes is 54 miles long, connecting various main post offices and stations and handling 70 tons of mail per day. Gas main and sewer conduits are also to he found in the labyrinths of the city’s arterial system, but complexity reaches the apparent limit in telephone wires. One special task that confronted a New York telephone company is quoted by Mr. Kent: A subway line proved a serious obstruction. “So two shafts were sunk on either side of Seventh Avenue, down to bedrock, twenty-five feet below the tracks of the subway, fifty feet under the surface of the street.

Sappers—with picks, shovels, and dynamite—worked beneath the subway trains laden with passengers, and eventually cleared a U-shaped passage, 150 feet long, eight feet wide and eight feet high. ‘More than a third of a million separate telephone wires now lie in the tunnel.”

Increased power demands, improved living conditions, the need for the artificial adjustment of atmospheric conditions in the larger buildings—these and many other factors are making it necessary to precede building construction with extensive excavation work.

An immense open cut is being completed near the publication offices of the McGraw-Hill organization, the work being accompanied by all the familiar practices and paraphernalia of modern mining. It extends to 75 feet below the sidewalk; and five floors of space will be provided for the varied supply and service requirements of a large modern hotel.

The story of opportunity and achievement in the laying out of a modern city, or bringing an old one up to date, is a fascinating one, but no feature is more important than the provision of means for underground transport and communication. In this field the mining engineer should distinguish himself. He and the associations which represent him should “get into the picture.” He is familiar with the problems involved and is capable of solving them. His breadth of experience should point the way to speedy performance, accurate result, and miiiimum construction expense.

rehab · MINING BOOMS LETTER TO THE EDITOR EMJ 9-23-1922

Emj 9-23-22

Mining Booms

THE EDITOR:

Sir—The recent discussion concerning the boom at Oatman reminds me of others. Most mining booms have their scene of action in a gold- or silver-bearing region, the chance of making money quickly being much greater there than in a base-metal district. Generally, rich ore is discovered at one point, after which the ground surrounding it is staked for miles. Companies are organized by the score, and brisk trading and absurd rises in the price of shares follow.

As the discovery claims continue to reveal more ore, the adjoining neighbors may find a little ore, whereupon the market booms and goes wild. This is why mining is termed a gamble by the unthinking public, especially by those who have been stung.

On the other hand, in the aggregate a good deal of money is collected by the companies formed, machinery is purchased—helping business generally—work is provided for a large number of officials and men, and the ground is prospected in every direction, permitting the geology to be studied. No doubt the state corporation departments are kept busy watching the prospectuses and organization of the many companies, this being one of the safeguards for the speculating public.

What have been the results of booms in the past? Omitting the early activity on the Rand, and the rush to the Klondike, we can look back on a number of booms within the last thirty years. Cripple Creek, as a starter, has yielded gold amounting to about $400,000,000. The names Cresson, El Paso, Golden Cycle, Independence, Portland, Strong, and Vindicator have become almost household words among mining men.

Next comes Kalgoorlie, in Western Australia, where British capital was sunk in millions sterling, but the total yield from an ore somewhat similar to Cripple Creek runs apace with the latter, and is equal to $380,000,000. No better mines have been developed than the Associated, Golden Horse Shoe, Great Boulder, Ivanhoe, Kalgurli, Lake View Consols, Oroya, Perseverance, and South Kalgurli.

At about the same time was a boom at Waihi, in New Zealand, but the only mine that was opened—the Silverton— closed later, leaving only the present mines—the Waihi and Grand Junction, which had been opened earlier.

Early in the present century Jim Butler discovered what has resulted in Tonopah, a silver district that has yielded $140,000,000—including gold—and such mines as the Jim Butler, Montana, Tonopah Belmont, Tonopah Extension, Tonopah Mining, and West End. Following Tonopah came Goldfleld, wherein the Goldfleld Consolidated alone yielded $78,000,000.

In northern Ontario next came Cobalt, another boom in silver. But what has it produced? Such mines as the Buffalo, Coniagas, Kerr Lake, La Rose, McKinley-Darragh-Savage, Mining Corporation group, Nipissing, Temiskaming, and Wettlaufer, a total of over 320,000,000 oz. of silver and many millions in dividends.

Porcupine was next the scene of a gold rush, resulting in the Dome, Hollinger, McIntyre, Porcupine Crown, and Schumacher, and an addition of over $75,000,000 of gold bullion to the Dominion’s once small total. Kirkland Lake had a considerable flutter, but has produced the Lake Shore and several other worthy producers.

A small yet reckless boom caught Australians again at Bullfinch, in the West, but only two mines of any note became producers out of the large number of companies bearing the names of various songsters, and they are now closed.

Rochester, in Nevada, then came along, but the rush for this silver district was quite mild, yet we have the Nevada Packard, and the Rochester Mines and Combined, now the Rochester Silver. Oatman, Arizona, started one of the largest booms in recent years, fully 200 companies being organized to prospect there for gold, depth being necessary.

Prior to this rush, the Tom Reed and Gold Road mines had been consistent producers, but when the United Eastern opened so well the excitement started. The really tangible result of the Oatman business is the United Eastern and Big Jim, now combined, and one or two other small producers; also the present discussion in the Journal-Press.

The boom in oil in Wyoming, copper at Jerome, in Arizona; oil shale in Colorado, and the feverish excitement in Texas oil might be included here.

This brings us, late in 1917, to the scene laid at Divide, six miles south of Tonopah. This was early known as the Gold Mountain district, but had been almost neglected until, in the Tonopah Divide mine, rich silver ore was found. By September, 1919, about 300 companies had been organized with: funds aggregating $3,000,000. Shares on Bush Street, San Francisco, soared to all sorts of prices.

The net result is the Tonopah Divide mine, a regular producer, and opened to 1,400 ft.; also one or two other small producers. Anyhow, the public had a run for its money- About the same time (1919) a highly respectable boom started in the Salmon River district of British Columbia, yielding the great Premier silver mine, which is distributing a half million every three months; also the Dolly Varden mine.

Then a wild boom started in 1919 at Hampton Plains, near Kalgoorlie, Western Australia. Visions of another Golden Mile, much speculation, geologic discussions and development of the Hampton Celebration, whose mill and cyanide plant recently started work, about sum up that affair. When and where will the next boom be?

As a whole, most booms in the past have been productive of many real mines and much valuable technical knowledge—both mining and metallurgical—but the reckless gambling on the part of the public, whereby it loses money, has given mining the odium of being a gamble; and while the public does not pause to consider the issues, considerable blame should be attached to the non-technical press, which rather urges—perhaps ignorantly and innocently by means of its news items—the speculation in unproved mining districts.

Pittsburgh, Pa. M. W. VON BERNEWITZ.

rehab · TRUE TALK FROM A MINER EMJ 9 23 1922

September 23, 1922 Engineering and Mining Journal-Press

True Talk from a Practical Miner

THE EDITOR:

Sir—I have read with interest in a recent copy of your journal some one’s remarks on the shortage of skilled and intelligent miners, and maybe a few remarks by a miner might help clear a few doubts.

In the first place, it might be well if young engineers were required to serve an apprenticeship on the muckstick and machine. I don’t mean a summer vacation but several summers and winters. I’m acquainted with several young mining school graduates, and they seem to think the proper place to get experience in mining-is either to keep time on the surface or watch the boys come out of the mines.

A technical education may be good, but judgment in mining and an understanding-of miners can only be gained by practice of the one and actual contact with the other. There is a Chinese proverb that used to receive consideration in dealing with miners: “If you employ a man, trust him, and if you can’t trust him, don’t employ him.”

In this day and. age they spot your holes, give you the direction in which to drill them, and issue you a certain amount of powder to blast them with. In the hole that I am at present laboring in, there are four types of drilling machines in use in seventeen distinct stages of dissolution.

A miner spends considerable time hunting for a machine and rig, then more time hunting for wedges and blocking; working one stope one day and another-the next; receives orders to stope out ground several feet above the foot wall, and is presented with a jack-hammer, which all intelligent miners think much of, and ordered to take up bottom the next day.

One reason for shortage of miners is the one man to a machine rule. I mucked eight months in order to get a job tending chuck, and tended chuck for a year before I had a chance to handle a machine and powder-on my own hook. I was a very proud young buck the first day I got hold of a crank, but I’m not so proud now. Any fifteen-dollar-a-week clerk can travel in circles that I can’t travel in. A dirty miner is one individual to be avoided at all times except on payday, and then he should only be tolerated so long as his money lasts.

There are a few things that mining companies might take note of that would tend to increase the number of intelligent miners. Some of them are: A certain amount of respect for the intelligence that some miners possess. Also, practical as well as technical men for general managers, superintendents and so forth. An intelligent miner hates like the devil to do work that is unnecessary and impracticable. Another thing is to foster pride in good work rather than to seek to have a large amount done in a slipshod manner.

The attitude of the mine management toward employees is indicated very clearly to employees by conditions in the change room and the quality of food served in company boarding houses where those things exist. Also where the company observes the ordinary laws of sanitation and ventilation, as well as safety laws, the employees have more of a tendency to do likewise.

Another thing is Rules and Regulations for Employees:
Rules should be sensible and reasonable and should be absolutely enforced. An employee who breaks rules and isn’t penalized loses respect for rules and the management that makes them.

Fred MOENCK.
Tonopah, Nev.~

rehab · MINING TIDBITS THE MINING JOURNAL 12 15 1930

TIDBITS OF INFO

MINING JOURNAL, DECEMBER 15, 1930

“The Western Borax Company at Daggett, CA, is making additions to its plant. Development is being carried on between 700 and 800 feet below the surface, and the veins are from 50 feet to 100 feet high. Some of the Borax is as clear as window glass.” Rehab notes: many of these borax workings were located on the perimeter areas of Calico; one being directly north of the agricultural station on I-15 southbound.

Where have we all heard this before?
“Prospectors retain Mineral Right in Death Valley Area:
E S Giles, of Goldfield, NV, consulting engineer and surveyor, has been advised by the United States Land Department that the recent withdrawal of lands in the Death Valley area will not affect the Mineral Rights of Prospectors. Under the provision of the act, the lands shall at all times be open to exploration, discovery, occupation, and purchase under the United States Mineral Laws.

The area withdrawn for a new national park development, which includes a large part of Death Valley, extends from Death Valley Scotty’s famous ranch in Grapevine Canyon, to within 3 miles of Trona, CA. It includes the old mining towns of Ballarat, Greenwater, Panamint, and Skidoo.”

rehab · MINING TIDBITS THE MINING JOURNAL 6 30 1931

THE MINING JOURNAL JUNE 30 1931

NATURAL GAS NOW FLOWING TO DOUGLAS COPPER SMELTERS

Natural gas for fuel is now being delivered to the copper companies in the Bisbee-Douglas district of Arizona, following the completion of the pipe line connecting the copper fields with the natural gas fields of Texas. Phelps Dodge Corporation has altered its furnaces to make possible the change from oil to gas fuel, while Calumet and Arizona Mining Company has built an entirely new furnace.

This 294-mile pipe line was constructed by Western Gas Company from El Paso, Texas, to Douglas and Bisbee, Arizona, and to Cananea, Mexico. It is of 12-inch welded steel pipe, and was constructed at a cost of around $6,000,000. The actual laying of the pipe line was handled by Bechtel-Kaiser Company, Limited, of San Francisco.

Construction was started on February 16, with contracts calling for its completion by August 1. It has, therefore, been completed a I most two months ahead of schedule.

Under ordinary service conditions it will be operated under pressure varying from 800 to 600 pounds per square inch, delivering approximately 33,000,000 cubic feet of gas daily at Douglas. However, it may be operated at a pressure of 750 cubic feet per square inch, delivering at that pressure 58,000,000 cubic feet of gas.

Construction of the pipe line was made possible by the long-time contracts signed by Phelps Dodge Corporation, Calumet and Arizona Mining Company, and Cananea Consolidated Copper Company. Both gas and copper companies look on the new project as a means of stabilizing fuel costs in the copper district.

MILL CONSTRUCTION PROPOSED FOR SAN ANDREAS, CALIF., MINE

Exhaustive tests are reported being conducted by Los Angeles metallurgists on ore from the Ford mine, near San Andreas, California, looking toward the erection of a reduction plant on the property.

F. A. Mansfield and J. B. Ferguson, real estate and mining men of 301 Quinby Building, Los Angeles, recently acquired this property, formerly developed by the Calaveras Development Company.

J. E. King, superintendent in charge of operations, has reported that good progress is being made in the new development work being undertaken. He estimates approximately 800,000 tons of gold ore of an average value of $7.50 per ton already available at the property.

A NUGGET From G00DSPRINGS, NEVADA
“I want to congratulate you on the Journal (The Mining Journal). I regard it as the best mining publication in the whole country, especially for westerners. The arrangement is so complete, it touches us all and gives us information concerning the things and places in which we are interested and is a big help to the country.”
—Jess Knight.

rehab · SAFETY FUSE USE AND CARE MINING JOURNAL 8 15 1931

Safety Fuse, Its Selection, Storage and Use
By JAY B. STONEKING, Secretary, Coast Manufacturing Company, Livermore, California.
The proper selection and use of safety fuse may mean the difference between profit and loss, and between safe working conditions and serious accidents.

Safety fuse consists of a center thread surrounded by a train of black powder and enclosed in various wrappings of textiles and waterproofing materials. Its purpose is to carry fire at a continuous, uniform rate to the cap or explosive charge. The center thread has no influence on the burning rate but is simply used to aid in securing a uniform flow of powder into the fuse. The powder, which is the live element in the fuse, is protected by the textiles and waterproofing coats from abrasion and water. This envelope is also used to secure a uniform burning rate, to prevent intercommunication of fire between adjacent lengths of fuse, to prevent flashing or running of the fire, and to minimize the chance of setting fire to the charge of explosives by sparks from the side of the fuse before the fire has reached the fuse end.

Selection of Fuse.
The choice of a fuse to use depends on the work and conditions under which it is expected to operate. A fuse which is to be used in very wet work, under water, or where water drills are in use, should be amply waterproofed; consequently, fuse for use in wet work must be highly water-resistant as compared to one which is to be used only under dry or slightly moist conditions. For cold climates a very pliable fuse in which the waterproofing will not become brittle and fracture should be used. The same holds true for use in mines which are very cold, Taped fuses are more susceptible to becoming brittle when subjected to cold than are cotton countered fuses, hence, the countered varieties are recommended for cold climates and cold conditions. For very hot climates or in hot mines or for open quarry work, such as block holing, where the fuse must at times be exposed to the direct rays of the sun, a use is required which will resist heat and for these conditions one of the white countered paper taped fuses is recommended.
Inasmuch as the paper taped fuses give off a minimum of side sparks on burning and a minimum of smoke and gas, this type of fuse is recommended for use in inflammable dynamites and explosives and for use underground where ventilation is poor. Where the practice in vogue of loading bore holes at a particular property involves the bad practice of lacing the fuse through the priming cartridge or otherwise causing kinks or sharp bends, a fuse which will give the maximum resistance to this sort of treatment should be selected. In some work the color of the rock formation may influence the selection of a fuse with regard to its outside finish. A white finished fuse is more easily distinguished against a dark colored rock than is a black finished fuse.

Transportation
In transporting fuse care should always be taken to see that it is protected from rain and moisture. Any contact with excessive heat such as exposure to the direct rays of the sun, storage near steam pipes, boilers or stoves, should be avoided. Since oils, paints, gasoline, kerosene, distillate, and similar solvents will penetrate through the waterproofing and deaden the powder, fuse should not be placed where there is any liability of these materials being splashed or spilled on the fuse during transportation.

Storage
What has just been said regarding oils and similar materials applies as well to fuse storage. Numerous cases have occurred where coils and reels of fuse have become damaged by being stored where any of the above named solvents could come in contact with the fuse. The slogan “Keep Cool and Dry” which is printed on all fuse wrappers should be adhered to. A rough test for dry storage is the well-known salt test. It consists of a shaker of ordinary non-iodized table salt being exposed for about 48 hours in a storage place. If the salt is not materially affected by the moisture then the place should be satisfactory for fuse storage.
As regards temperature, a place which always remains between 45 and 70 F. is the best for fuse. It is not wise to store fuse underground, as the underground air is usually very humid and even cut fuse lengths should not be kept under these conditions longer than 48 hours. The old stocks of fuse should always be used up before beginning on a new incoming shipment. This precaution is necessary because the burning speed of the fuse slows somewhat with age and the waterproofing coats have a tendency to lose their elasticity and become more brittle with age.

Cutting and Crimping
It is always a wise precaution to insure that the fuse is warm before uncoiling. A temperature of at least 65’ F. is desirable. On fuse which has been exposed to the air for a considerable time at least ¼ inch should be cut from the end so as to obviate trouble from damp fuse ends. In measuring lengths, the fuse should not be wound around a nail or peg since these sharp bends are very liable to cause a fracture in the waterproofing coat. The cutting implement should have a clean sharp blade as this avoids smearing the waterproofing over the end of the powder train with consequent trouble from misfires. The fuse should be cut squarely across and inserted in the cap immediately after cutting.
Instances involving misfires have been investigated which show that the trouble was due to the loss of powder from the fuse ends before being inserted in the cap. In some cases this shaking out of the powder was produced by slapping the fuse ends roughly upon the cutting table or bench. In other cases, the fuse was hung over a peg or nail with the ends down where they were flipped about by the wind and by persons rubbing against them in passing. No foreign matter of any kind should be allowed in the cap and a damp cap, or caps, which may be suspected of having absorbed moisture, should not be used.
In crimping the cap on a fuse length, the fuse end should be seated lightly and firmly in contact with the surface of the fulminate in the cap. Eliminating such old methods as crimping with the heel of a pocket knife blade or with the teeth, there are three general types of cap crimpers in use which make distinctive crimps. The broad flat crimp has two ridges on opposite sides of the fuse for vents. The four-segment crimp has four slight ridges at equal intervals around the fuse for vents. The ring crimp may or may not be vented. Some crimpers of the ring type do not have a stop, hence, the jaws may be closed so tightly as to completely sever the fuse, This type is not recommended.
The reason that practically all crimps are vented is because fuse contains air which is forced in advance of the fire into the cap and unless this air is allowed to escape through the vents in the crimp a back pressure will build up against the fuse spit and seriously interfere with its effectiveness.
Sometimes on a black finished fuse having a relatively soft outside surface a crimper of any of the above types, which is of too small diameter, will squeeze the outside waterproofing into the vents or ridges and seal them up, making an un-vented crimp.
In wet work it is necessary to seal the cap crimp with some sort of waterproofing material. This act in itself closes the vents, resulting in a non-vented crimp. In the ease of all waterproofed crimps— in fact, in any non-vented crimp, exceedingly great care should be exercised to see that the fuse powder in the end of the fuse is in actual contact with the fulminate in the cap. Gaps as small as 1/16th of an inch will give serious trouble from misfires.
In some cases where a black finished fuse was used and trouble was perpetually encountered due to not carefully seating the fuse end against the fulminate, the condition was corrected by substituting a hard white-countered finished fuse in place of the black finished. The white- countered finish does not squeeze out into the vents, hence, practically always leaves a full vented crimp. However, when this crimp is waterproofed and the vents sealed, the same condition applies as mentioned above for black fuse and the same care in carefully seating the fuse against the fulminate should be observed.
Materials used to waterproof the crimp sometimes cause trouble. A too liquid compound will run down into the cap through the vents, sealing over the fulminate surface and cause misfires. A crimper that makes too loose a crimp will sometimes allow the same thing to happen. Greases and oils, paints, which contain gasoline, benzenes, carbon tetrachloride, and similar solvents, should not be used to waterproof the cap crimp. These materials will penetrate through the fuse waterproofing and into the powder, giving rise to very weak end spits or even complete failure to burn.
The capped fuse lengths when not immediately used should be hung over a broad curved surface or laid flat on a shelf. A number of causes for misfires have been traced to the hanging of capped fuse lengths over small pegs or rails. These pegs or nails cut into the waterproofing and materially weaken the water-resistance of the fuse at this point. Another instance was encountered where the capped lengths were tied in bunches, formed into coils, and the coils stacked high, one on top of the other, in a warm room. In this case, in the bottom coils, where the fuse strands crossed one another, the waterproofing had been cut into, similar to the instances mentioned above where the lengths were hung over nails.

Attaching Fuse to Primer Cartridge
Those methods of attaching the capped fuse to the cartridge of dynamite known as “lacing,” “half-hitching,” “reversed primer,” and “center end priming” which cause sharp bends in the fuse near the cap should be avoided. Any sharp bend has a tendency to fracture the waterproofing and admit water into the powder at the fractured point. Two methods known as the “string tied method” and the “rim end method” are to be preferred since these cause no sharp bends in the fuse. In the string tied method, the hole is punched slantingly through the side of the cartridge and angling toward the center of the opposite end, the capped end being inserted in the hole and the fuse tied to the cartridge with a string. In the rim end method the hole is started in one end near the rim of the cartridge and angled toward the center of the opposite end. These methods leave the fuse at one side of the bore hole and avoid kinks which might be caused by the tamping stick or succeeding cartridges placed in the hole.

Loading and Spitting the Round of Holes
In charging boreholes for dependent or rotation firing, such as in drift or tunnel rounds, the primer cartridge should be placed far enough down the hole to avoid being cut off or thrown out by the explosion of the adjoining hole. The same number of cartridges should be used above the primer cartridge in holes in the same round and the tamping should be uniformly tight in each hole. This is advisable because the burning rate of fuse is affected by the length and tightness of the tamping, hence, this should be kept as equal as possible on all holes which are to be fired in rotation. The fuse should be held taut at one side of the hole while loading and tamped so as to avoid kinks and cuts in the fuse. There should always be some stemming on top of the explosive so as to avoid any possibility, during the lighting of the fuse, of sparks coming in contact with the explosive. Stemming material containing sharp particles should not be used as these sharp particles may cut through the waterproofing and cause misfires.

In spitting or lighting a round of holes where each series is dependent on each other and must be fired in rotation, the fuse end should be trimmed or cut off, varying the length cut off so that the holes which are intended to fire first have the most trim or longest length cut off. The amount to cut off depends upon the length of fuse being used. A good average rule is to trim ¾ inch per foot of fuse length being used. This would mean that if a 6-foot length were being used, the lifters or holes to fire last, would have no trim. The back holes would have an 8-inch trim. The breast holes and the relievers immediately above the lifters would have a 6-inch trim and the cut holes, which are to fire first, would have a 9-inch trim. The holes should then be lighted in the order in which they are expected to fire.

Misfires
Where misfires are encountered, a careful and thorough investigation will usually develop the cause of the trouble, which can then be remedied. The lengths of fuse with caps attached taken from misfired holes generally tell the story. In examining these misfired holes it should be noted whether there are any indications of sharp bends in the fuse near the capped end, which might have been produced by such practice as lacing the fuse through the cartridge or some similar method. If the crimp is waterproofed, the nature of the material used for waterproofing should be noted. The caps can be pulled off and examination made to see whether the fuse has been cut squarely or on a slant and whether the fuse end was in actual contact with the cap fulminate.
Damp fuse ends usually show a minute particle of the center thread remaining in the fuse end. A leaky crimp wilI sometimes show moisture in the cap and the powder in the fuse end will generally be wet. If the fuse has burned completely through and there is no moisture evident, a blackened fulminate surface indicates that a dirty or dull blade had been used in cutting the fuse and smeared waterproofing across the end of the powder, Loss of powder from the fuse ends before crimping generally results in a slightly blackened fulminate surface while the inside surface of the jute threads in the fuse end are hardly charred. Greases, oils and similar materials penetrate into the threads surrounding the powder train or even into the powder itself, volatizing ahead of the fire and re-condensing on the surface of the fulminate which will show a bad discoloration, being brownish and blackened.

If the fuse has not burned completely through, it should be un-ravelled carefully, taking off successive layers until the powder is reached. If wet powder is encountered, near any sharp bends, it will indicate that the waterproofing has been fractured at this point. If wet or caked
powder is found in the fuse along the ore hole at a considerable distance above the cap, the waterproofing may have been fractured by kinking in tamping, cut by sharp tamping particles, by the fuse not being properly warm before uncoiling, by having taken a half turn around a nail or peg while cutting the fuse lengths, by hanging the fuse lengths on a peg or nail after being cut, or by bunches of coiled capped lengths having been stored on top of one another, allowing the strands of fuse to cut into one another. If a very dull looking powder is disclosed, it may indicate having become oil soaked or overheated,

Premature Blasts
In the daily checking of the manufactured product, millions of feet of fuse have been burned under close observation. This observation has never disclosed a so-called “flashing” or “running” fuse Inasmuch as there have been reported instances of blasts going off prematurely, the above observation necessitates the placing of the cause of these premature blasts on something else than that of a running fuse.

If a fuse length is pounded on a flat surface so as to fracture the enclosing envelope longitudinally or is cut open with a knife longitudinally, a flash or run will result. Fuse that has been roughly trampled underfoot on sharp rocks might give rise to a similar condition. The lack of tamping or covering over an explosive charge might result in a premature blast due to the setting of the charge on fire by the curling back of the lighted fuse, spitting into the explosive. Sparks from a punk or rope lighter might also drop into the explosive and set it on fire. Coiling up of the fuse around the mouth of a hole and laying a sharp cornered rock on it to weight it down might cause crossings of the fire from one strand to another where the rock had cut into the adjoining strands. The coiling up of the excess fuse length and shoving same into the mouth of the hole might fracture the fuse coverings and cause a spit into the explosive or cause a cross-fire from one strand to another. In a tamped hole a badly kinked or cut fuse might side spit into that portion of the explosive near the mouth of the hole, setting fire to same and resulting in a premature blast before the fuse had burned down to the cap.

Delayed Blasts
In the millions of feet of fuse which have been burned under observation in checking plant product, there has never been a case found of a piece of fuse apparently going out, smoldering for a time, and later rekindling and burning through. In all observed cases, where the fire apparently died out, it had been in fact, completely extinguished, never to again rekindle.
Since delayed blasts have been reported and the above observations indicate that the cause is not in the fuse itself, the following explanations may be of benefit.
The cap not being tightly crimped has allowed the fuse to pull away several inches from the cap in loading. The end spit from the fuse has set the explosive afire, which later detonated.
Weak or moisture-damaged caps have set fire to the explosive which later detonated.
Delayed blasts occurring for a considerable length of time after they should have fired most probably are due to a misfired hole which a later ground squeeze or ground movement has fired by the pinching of the cap or explosive. In other instances some explosive with cap may have been cut out of one hole by the explosion of an adjoining hole and thrown out in the muck pile, this explosive or cap later might be fired by the sliding of the rock in the pile or by falling rock from the roof.
While it is not maintained that defective fuse has never been manufactured, every effort has been made to insure a perfect product being shipped. It can readily be seen that various things may happen to fuse after it leaves the factory and that good careful handling coupled with good blasting practice will be amply repaid in freedom from trouble and misfires.

rehab · PERFECT SAFETY AT JEROME, AZ TMJ 6 30 1929

rehab · 4 STEPS TO MAKE A MINE TMJ 6 30 1929

JUNE 30, 1929 THE MINING JOURNAL

Topsy

By LETSON BALLIET, Consulting Engineer, Tonopah, Nevada. The mining industry, like Topsy,
“Jest Growed,” but larger profits would result were the four essential steps in making a mine followed—prospecting, exploring, developing and producing.

If a prize were offered for the best synchronized and most efficiently handled business, it would NOT go to the mining business. Probably the big circus is timed the most perfectly from the advance agent to reloading after the night show, and perhaps the 5 and 10 store is somewhere close to the top-contenders for the prize, but there are two business operations that wouldn’t have a chance at the money—mining and cement manufacturing.

Both of them, like Topsy, “jest growed.” Nobody ever planned on ‘em being much account when they started, but when they “jest growed” too big for their clothes, they were pieced out, patched up, and added to, as “good enough for Topsy,” and if that doesn’t fill the bill, they “jest pick up some old things” that have been thrown away, or discarded as obsolete, out of date, or worn too badly to be worth fixing. Anything is regarded good enough for the Topsy Mining Company.

J. B. Hagin is credited with saying:
“I wouldn’t have a mine that wouldn’t stand mismanagement,” but today mismanagement may be just the difference between failure and success. What other business could even cause such a statement to be thought of?

Compare this statement with conditions at the new Carreras factory, where humidity and temperature are so controlled as to manufacture its own climate; in perfect lighting arrangements with the machinery so automatic that the company makes $2,000 net profit per year per worker on the payroll from the superintendent down. The workers receive good pay, and are supplied with the very best working conditions. Instead of making a profit by pinching it out of the workers’ pay, they make it with mechanical economics and good working conditions.

Leaving a loop hole, through which any mine manager can crawl by saying:
“He doesn’t mean me,”—I wonder how many mines were laid out for the tonnage they produce, and are mechanized and supplied with working conditions that give the workers a chance to produce the maximum tonnage per man without undue fatigue. I wonder how many mines dare publish “tons per man on the payroll.”

Cutting miner’s wages has never increased the output per man on the payroll, nor lowered the cost per ton. It may fool the directors for a while, but taking money from the workers’ pay to bolster a superintendent’s reputation for lowering costs never works out in the long run. When a wage cutter loses his job, he seldom can get another of that kind. The proper way to lower costs is to mechanize the work with automatic machinery and higher paid workers to operate it.

There is only one Carreras factory, and perhaps one mine that leads in efficiency, and maybe a few others that approach somewhere near the leaders, but we have a right to wonder why others do not strive to reach the same point of efficiency.

There is but one crop in any mine. No matter how big it may be, when it is gone it is gone. It would seem that the incentive should be to harvest that crop at the lowest cost per ton, instead of being satisfied with any cost so long as it shows a profit. Why not get as much of the single crop into the bank account as possible, and as little as possible into the expense account?

It has been asserted frequently that “a good mine makes a good manager,” and “a man in charge of a mine so rich that it pays in spite of the management makes the manager a big reputation,” but not every promoter is able to find a foolproof mine of which he can elect himself manager. Even if such a mine were a profit payer over the costs, would any other business be satisfied if the profits could be more?

Consider the case of the Hypothetical Mining Company, paying 20 per cent quarterly. The published reports showed the operating costs as $9.52 per ton, handling 500 tons a day. Nothing with less than $9.52 in recoverable value could be taken out. It had to be left as “waste.”

When the administrative office expense, travel expense, officers and directors salaries were paid, there was nothing left for the stockholders after the ore values dropped below $14 a ton.

The Hypothetical Mining Company then stopped paying dividends with the “eyes picked out of the mine,” and its best grade of ores gone. Under $14 a ton the records began to show red ink in the profit and loss column until the final shut down, notwithstanding that an attempt was made to keep going by cutting wages.

Subsequent examinations show that the mine still contains more than a million tons of ore in sight that will average from $7 to $11 per ton, which the previous manager has left standing as “waste.”

Suppose a management, who could have mechanized the ore handling to $7 a ton, had been in charge, the profits on the three million tons that have already been taken out would have been $2.52 a ton larger, and the stockholders bank accounts would have been greater by $7,500,000 that was wasted in useless expense—and at least a million tons with $2 or $3 profit could be on top of the ground, instead of hopelessly buried in the abandoned -workings. There would be approximately $9,000,000 or $10,000,000 more metal floating around the world somewhere for the benefit of mankind that is now unobtainable.

Building the Dump
If we go into any mining district, or any mineralized region, we see countless dumps, large and small, around the collar of the shafts, or at the entrance to tunnels. I wonder if any one ever stopped to figure what it costs to put a carload of waste over the dump.

Some years ago, I watched from my office window the top man on the dump of a neighboring mine, and my own top man. I made some changes in my top work as a result of the object lesson that chance put within view of my window.

The conditions were as follows: The wage scale for top men was $5 per day. Eight hours contains 480 minutes, therefore, I was paying slightly more than 1 cent per minute to the top man. So was my neighbor. Both properties were developing, hoisting only waste. The rock was hoisted on a cage in a one-ton car. The top man removed the loaded car, replaced an empty car on the cage, shoved the loaded car to the edge of the dump; where it was emptied, and returned to the collar.

When things were running smoothly this operation required eight minutes. Sometimes there were long periods of waiting. At times the top man moved track, occasionally a car got off the track or went over the dump with its load, which caused delays and required help from other employees. With these delays and the cost of rails, cars, ties, spikes, fish-plates, lubricating oils, moving track, and help from other employees, I estimated that it was costing 20 cents to 25 cents to put a car of waste over the dump after it reached the surface. There were 21 employees. The cost of operating was 56 cents a minute, including overhead and expendable supplies (those that would have no salvage possibilities).

That reminds me of an old song entitled, “There are lots of things one never learns at school.”

At one time I was a division engineer for a railroad. In ballasting I obtained the gravel from a pit, using a donkey engine and a dragline scraper. With a car spotted under a hopper, we loaded gondolas at a cost of 2 cents a yard.

A mine dump is a fan-shaped “fill” and the gravel pit was a fan-shaped “excavation.” The operations are the exact reverse of each other.

The dragline brought gravel from the ever-widening edge of the gravel pit to the central point of loading. The top man, with a car, moved the rock from the central point and dumped it at the ever-widening edge of the dump. If it were possible to have turned the dump upside down, it would practically have fitted into and filled the gravel pit.

With a dozen reels of old hoisting rope lying around, with but little salvage value, I wondered why it cost 20 cents to 25 cents per 20 cubic feet to build a dump, and 2 cents for 27 cubic feet of gravel gathered from the pit. Quien sabe? (Who Knows?)

I equipped the operations, under my direction, with an 80 cubic foot self-dumping skip, and built a bin at the shaft large enough to hold a 24 hours’ run of the hoist, if operated to its peak of capacity. Then I set a top man to empty it at such times as it needed emptying. Not only did I save top man time, but I saved hoisting time, as the skip had no waiting to do for the change of cars. I wasn’t hoisting the weight of the ears, and I didn’t have to use the cars for rock storage on the levels, nor wait for an empty to be returned. When the underground trammer dumped his car he took the same car back and there was no waiting, nor cars standing on the levels. But aside from interlocking savings, I cut the cost of building the dump more than 50 per cent.

That is only one item, and one worker’s job, but I will not be in the same class with the Carreras factory until I can take the rock away from the collar and put it on the dump by having the descending skip operate a starter that will do the job without the man.

However, that wasn’t what I started to write about. The idea I want to continue to talk about is the “jest growed” idea. We find a long drift or crosscut is confronted with ventilating problems. Maybe we have a blower, or a pressure, or suction fan installed some place. Perhaps we put in a booster fan, or a compressed air jet, and try td get along. Perhaps a branch drift or a stops needs air, and how many of us do what we should do? I have been guilty myself, and I’d be ashamed to tell you what I’ve done to “get by” and I’ve seen worse contraptions than I ever used. But we “jest growed” and “we added to, pieced out, and patched up” something that was good enough. Then we found a lot of ore and tried to take it out with the conditions we put up to find it, but I learned my lesson to figure tonnage and cost per ton before I let myself run into any Scotch economies.

Pumping water is another item that will break a company if it isn’t handled right. I was drowned out once about 30 years ago, but never again. I learned how to handle water from that experience. Not so long ago I found a graduate engineer, pumping water from a 500-foot mine (?) with three little pumps, bought second hand, with two discharge pipe lines, and operating to full capacity for 24 hours. His pumping costs and uncertainties made the job a failure, even though the ore was there.

Nobody is expected to wear this shoe if it doesn’t fit, but the object in writing it is not to see how many will blush while reading it, but rather to visualize what occurs in the starting of new mines, and the “exploring of prospects,” which then try to develop and mine ore with the prospecting equipment. Is it any wonder that we have ill advised, incompetently directed, and incompetently financed stock promotions that result in losses to the investors?

There Are Four Steps In Making a Mine

(1) Prospecting—or hunting for the place where Nature has deposited some of her mineral ores.

(2) Exploring—”Prospecting the prospect.” Finding out whether Nature made a big deposit, or a small one. Whether she deposited it in a crack, vertically, horizontally, inclined, or impregnated the formations. Ascertain size, extent, depth, trend, dip, rake and values.

(3) Developing—Planning where to open the deposit for the taking out of the ores most economically and cheaply, easiest of accessibility for the underground delivery to the outlet, and the surface handling at the outlet. Planning how to open the deposit, the equipment required, the cost of doing it and the capacity of shaft and equipment, and then executing according to plans. In short, getting ready to move the deposit.

(4) Mining—Moving the deposit from the place where Nature put it to a bank account.

The attempt to combine any two of these steps is expensive. Mining, without development, makes the cost per ton high. Developing, without having first explored the prospect to know how it should be developed, is foolish, as the deposit might be only a little thing not worth extensive development, or it might be so big that inadequate development would have to be done all over, or in some other spot.

Generally, it doesn’t require much money to explore a prospect. If it does, it is big enough to justify it, or the exploration work would have been stopped. It is not difficult to find men with money who are willing to put in a little money to explore a prospect, because the profit is large if it is big and rich. If the prospect has been explored, there is ample capital always ready to buy, or develop.

The difficulty in financing comes when the prospector and promoter want to leave out the second step, and raise money to DEVELOP the prospect that has not been EXPLORED sufficiently to give the knowledge that it justifies DEVELOPMENT.

With all this in mind I am asked: “Is it possible to outline in advance a plan of operation for making a prospect into a mine?” It is easy to outline the exploration of the prospect as defined in Step 2, which can be continued or stopped as conditions warrant.

If the exploration work is thorough and sufficient to know what is necessary to be known, I see no difficulties in the way of planning the development (defined in Step 3) with reasonable accuracy and in estimating the financial requirements.

With the development well advanced, and the exploration work being carried ahead of the development, it is easy to plan and outline the ore production, handling, and the related operations, but when the inexperienced superintendent and promoter attempt to finance—”to mine a prospect,” without taking Steps 2 and 3, I can see very grave dangers in the path of the investor. In fact, I am almost ready to say it can’t be done.

rehab · THE PROSPECTOR PROBLEMS TMJ 9 30 1929

for SEPTEMBER 30, 1929 THE MINING JOURNAL

The Prospector and His Problems

By A. C. GILMORE, Prescott, Arizona.
Paper presented at the Prescott Mining Revival.

Despite the many difficulties, the word “discouragement” isn’t in the prospector’s vocabulary.

The prospector I have reference to is of the genus derisively called Hillbilly or desert rat. In these days prospecting is not monopolized by him of the frying pan, pick, shovel and blanket roll, packed on a burro. It sometimes happens that companies, capitalized for a million dollars, ultimately turn out to be prospectors; for some of them, before they ever worked or sold a pound of ore, found that they were prospecting for the bigger fellows—the companies with scores of millions available for mining.

Hillbilly can prospect only in terms of feet; the small company digs a few hundreds of feet; the great companies are prospecting all the time, miles of drifts, crosscuts, winzes. One company in Yavapai County, had some 10 miles of underground workings before it installed a mill. But the big mines had their inception on the day when the Hillbilly found float ore and the vein it came from.

Magazine writers, with their desk in New York, claim that Hillbilly’s burro finds the ore by accident. Hillbilly’s practical, and sometimes disastrous, experience with Jack and Jenny, is that they do most of their prospecting in search of the slab of bacon and the sack of flour. Fortunately for Hillbilly, burros cannot climb a tree, nor a giant cactus.

Problem I
To get a grubstake.
In these days, as of yore, Prospector finds that the average merchant who owns the bacon and beans or the other fellows who have the ‘dinero’ think that they are doing something magnificent and munificent if they allow him $25 per month. Prospector solves this little problem by getting a job and earning enough to buy not only grub and tools, but a flivver as well.

What with cattle guards, drift fences, gasoline for sale, where formerly hay and grain and free water could be had, the burro is nearly useless. It is said that he can live on tin cans, but even Jack Burro balks at gasoline and Zerolene cans, now plentiful at what were formerly stage stations with watering troughs for Jack and Jenny. If they now get a drink, it will have to be from a hose while Prospector is reading a sign “Free water for customers only.’ So Prospector, having luckily preserved the lives of him self and family when crossing the (to him) scars upon the face of nature, called boulevards, has abandoned Jack and Jenny, mounted Tin Lizzie, and joined the rush.

Rush it is with some of them—especially the young and less experienced. Two young fellows who drifted to Prescott in a flivver said they had prospected all the way from the Mother Lode of California in two weeks. Located scores of service stations, but no veins. I recently talked with an old prospector, however, who is a mechanical engineer. He put new fangled innards into Lizzie so that she could climb out of arroyos and up steep hills, and he loaded up with water and gas, and got farther out on the desert than Jack and Jenny could go, except in a
very wet season.

He found a big deposit of manganese—but too far from road or rail. Which is, by the way, one
of the prospector’s problems after finding ore how to get it to market.

And right here, although irrelevant, (and perhaps will be deemed by some as also impertinent), I would like to remark that not in a thousand years would that manganese have been found by a mahogany-desk mine operator, nor by the mine promoter, nor by the mining stock salesman. A trip like that would mar the varnish of their limousines. So the prospector is still the advance guard of the mining industry, which in turn, is the advance guard of civilization.

The prospector discovered the metals, which have substituted the steamship for the canoe, have replaced the stone hammer and hatchet, by metallic tools of such hardness and temper that they will cut glass. And, by the way, even Tin Lizzie may be said to have been procreated by Prospector, for what would she be, and how far would she get, without the iron, manganese, copper, vanadium, etc., in her makeup?

Well, Prospector, having provided himself with grub and loaded it upon Tin Lizzie, starts out, and of course meets

Problem 2
Which is to find ore having quality and quantity warranting development.

Perhaps he finds a float in a score of gulches, digs upon as many hillsides, spends weeks or months tracing veins, panning or otherwise testing ore. Say that, by way of illustration, he eventually overcomes Problem 2; finds a big vein of free-milling gold ore, $15 a ton, 20 feet wide, 1,000 feet of ore outcropping. He knows it is very valuable, and that with the proper equipment to work it, his fortune is in that rock.

But it is two miles from a spring up on the mountain, is 20 miles from the nearest wagon road—and he is only $20 from being flat broke. He cannot ‘arrastra’ the ore, for it is a little too low grade to pay by that slow process, and the nearest quartz mill is 40 miles away. So he is up against it, so far as his individual resources are concerned. He is confronted by

Problem 3
Which is to get financial help.

Now, as a class, the prospector is not a schemer, nor a bilk. At the beginning, he is ignorant of the methods of the so-called financier, and of the financial agencies, and of middlemen. Perhaps he loses his property before he realizes that he has associated himself with human spiders who had spread their webs, and that he was the fly they were after. To escape these spiders is a difficult thing, even for the experienced. The spider is forever inventing and building new webs, or patching weak places in the old.

Our prospector goes to town, having first duly monumented, and done the initial work upon the Good Faith, and other claims. In the lobby of the best hotel he gets into conversation with Mr. Fatwad, reputed financier. “Yes, I can finance the property by forming a corporation, but I want 51 per cent of the stock,” says Fatwad.

At first Prospector thinks that, as he is owner and has thus far borne the entire burden, he should get at least one-half interest in the company’s stock. But it is explained that in consideration of the extra 1 per cent of the stock, Mr. Fatwad will pay the expense of organizing the company. Prospector is anxious to make a deal, and says to himself, “Well, 1 per cent isn’t much, anyway.” So he consents. Suggests Good Faith Mining Corporation as the name of the company. Fatwad says, “Fine! That sounds fine!” His smile indicates derision and humor, as well as pleasure, but Prospector does not notice that; is himself in excellent humor, indulges in prophecies as to the big mine they will make.

A deed conveys the property from Prospector to the ‘Company’. Prospector finds that the board of directors consists of Fatwad, Fatwad’s wife, Fatwad’s stenographer, Fatwad’s bookkeeper and Mr. Prospector. Fatwad is in control. Work is started under Fatwad’s direction. Later it is found that money is not forthcoming to pay miners and merchants.

Prospector has beautiful stock certificates, but no money. Some fine day he reads in the local paper that the company’s holdings will be sold by the sheriff at 10 a. m. at the north door of the courthouse. Prospector witnesses these obsequies —broke. Fatwad also is there, as planned from inception of this and other companies, and bids in the whole property for a debt not at all commensurate with its value.

The months pass, as does title to the ground. Prospector finds that his “Good Faith Mining Corporation” is succeeded by Merger Mines Company, Inc., a company in which he has no ownership, although still interested—as an onlooker. Prospector remarks; “That Financier Fatwad is sure a merger, all right! He merged my 100 per cent ownership into 49 per cent; did the same thing with Chuckawalla Bill’s Rattler group and with Burro Sam’s B. A. M. group, then chucked ‘em all into this Merger thing. Merger ain’t a strong enough word—I’m plumb submerged! Next time I’ll do the financing myself; organize a company at my own expense, and keep control.”

So back to the hills he goes. Locates another group, works for wages, saves about $1,000. Tries to start a company, finds he does not know how, so hires a lawyer. “You must have articles of incorporation,” says the lawyer. “All right,” says Prospector. Lawyer steps into next room and speaks with Miss Stenog, who trots down stairs. Prospector is told to come back next day. Miss Stenog goes to recorder’s office, is handed one of 16 volumes of recorded articles of incorporation, copies one of them which fits the case except as to names and dates. Elapsed time of Miss Stenog, two hours.

Next day Prospector pays $50 for the job. He is paying for about $2 worth of actual work, the $48 being for brain fag sustained by the lawyer. Then follow bylaws, and application to corporation commission for permit to sell stock. Sounds profound, mysterious, difficult to Prospector. But as there are tons of carbon copies of such documents available, Miss Stenog simply has another job of copying. Lawyer’s brain fag again assuaged. This time it cost
Prospector the savings from a month’s wages when working on a bean diet.

Prospector then goes to Phoenix, to square his company with the corporation commission. His company, like other mining companies, is, by Arizona and California laws, presumed to be guilty of fraudulent intent until proven innocent of such malicious purpose by the payment of fees to the corporation commission. Well, he pays, and gets his permit. Cost him about $100; lawyer cost him $200; is out about $800, and not a share of stock sold.

He tries to sell stock. He is not a good salesman; does not look prosperous, for he had to pay for red tape instead of for good clothes. Concludes, finally, that he will have stock sold on commission.

Sees in a reputable paper printed in Los Diablos, California, the advertisement of an outfit stating that they are prepared to conduct the details of financing new corporations. Prospector writes them. They answer, outlining their methods, but promise nothing definite. State that they cannot do so until they have threshed the matter out with him in person. Will he please come to their office and confer? His company has no money to defray such expense, but he goes. Is impressed by the handsome furnishings, the bevy of handsomer stenogs, the suavity of the manager, and the general aspect of prosperity.

Is told about the New York branch, with big clientele; and the great volume of money available in California from movie stars and retired capitalists, the manager verbally insinuating that their bank accounts are on tap for him and that he is their trusted adviser in matters financial. Yes, they have employees who are gifted writers of prospectuses and follow-up letters; in fact, have all modern facilities for conducting a stock-selling campaign.

For $1,000 they will prepare and mail such literature, and will charge 20 per cent upon stock sales made directly by their salesmen. The $1,000 is too big for Prospector’s pile, but he has $600 left. Compromise effected by cutting down amount of mail matter. Prospector hands over his $600. Receipts from stock sales are to be placed to credit of his company. Sounds fine to Prospector, so he goes back to his claims and does a little work on roads and trails, awaiting the arrival of funds.

Weeks pass; no funds arrive. Excuses and explanations from the financing agency as spacious as their offices were spacious. Prospector reads his contract critically, carefully. Finds that nothing is guaranteed except that they will write and print a prospectus, mail certain form letters, send out stock salesmen to try to sell the company’s stock.

Prospector runs across a printer friend. Is told that prices charged were very high, even if he were sure the full number were printed and mailed as agreed upon. Prospector, under an assumed name, sends for literature of other mining companies, which had, like him, contributed toward the prosperity of the financing agency.

Found a remarkable similarity in them. Printer looks them over. “A lot of pick-up in these,” says he. “Guess their printing office keeps the forms standing for the next sucker who comes along.” Prospector soliloquizes: “For Financier Fatwad, in the Good Faith Mining Company deal, I was the fly. He swallowed me whole. In this financial agency alleged attempt at financing, I am surely the goat—and now my printer friend insinuates that I am also a ‘sucker’.”
Next day he picks up the Arizona Republican, dated August 4, 1929. Across eight columns he reads a big heading: “Statistical Position of Copper Aided by Curtailment.”
This reminds him of

Problem 4
What can I do with copper prospects?
Prospector knows the copper camps of Arizona. Has studied the outcrops of the big mines. During his wanderings in remote places he has seen unexplored ground with equally good earmarks. “But what’s the use of locating it?” thinks he. “Big companies have a huge tonnage of ore blocked out. Could flood the market if they worked to utmost capacity; and I read, also, that South America, Africa, Canada have to be reckoned with—especially the cheap-labor countries. And, besides, the big companies have for years had their scouts in the field and now have mine reports pigeon-holed by the dozen.

Slim chance for me and my remote ground. The more available ground is already located—and included in those reports. If I located ground, which is even better than any ever yet found, I could not prove it to be such. It would, in these days, mean millions of expenditure. Perhaps, 20 years from now, when the mines now operating are depleted, I might sell copper claims—if, in the meantime, I had not been driven off the ground, and other goats taken my place. I mean the real, four-legged critters. Looks a little discouraging for me- as far as selling copper claims is concerned.

“But that big headline in the Republican at least strongly hints that copper will fetch a fair price for a while. Guess I’ll keep my eyes open for a streak of red oxide or glance, and ship it. The little which we prospectors send to the smelters, will not cause a break in the market. Course I’ll have to figure railroad freight rates and smelting charges more carefully than I figured with them different breeds of fake financiers, or I’ll lose labor spent in digging $80 ore.

Down in the Tucson section, I hear, the prospector can take his little jag of ore to the Chamber of Commerce. Little jags, thrown into the copper, lead, gold or zinc bin, eventually make a carload, getting the benefit of carload rates on railroad as well as at smelter. I understand that the Chamber of Commerce does a little better than break even, that the prospector gets more for his ore, and is encouraged to dig more ore—which means digging more money and putting it into circulation among the members of the Chamber of Commerce and the whole community.”

Problem 5
Where in heck are those patented claims?
Prospector, having unburdened himself to me, as above related, said that he guessed he would quit financiering and try chloriding for a while. So he went to the hills again, to find a vein suiting his purpose and within hauling distance of a railroad. In about two months he was back. “Well,” said I, “did you find that vein of shipping ore?” That started him.

Leaving out lurid profanity and much sarcasm directed against defunct mining companies and somnolent holders of mining claims, he told his latest experiences about this way:

“Sure, I found good veins, and close to towns. Picked up a promising vein one day while I was hammering Lizzie with a rock. Traced the vein about a mile and nearly fell into an old shaft. Looked as if it hadn’t been worked since the days of Coronado. Small quantity of very good ore lying around. Found out that the claim is patented, along with 11 others, and that the owner is a rich widow living in New York. Thought I might get a lease, or perhaps find ore outside the patented ground and locate it. Wrote to the widow. Her attorney replied that the ground was for sale for cash only, and that I could get plat at the land office. Wanted cash payment quicker than I could have picked it up, if the ground had been strewn with $20 gold pieces. Bet that widow is like some of your town people; will not think of those claims again until next year when the tax collector wants his check.

Those 12 patented claims were in that vicinity. But where? Might be strung out for 18,000 feet along that vein I had stumbled across. That’s over 8 ½ miles. Drove Lizzie about five miles beyond the widow’s ground. Found another good looking vein. Patented also; 15 claims this time. Found it belonged to a storekeeper. I didn’t say merchant; I said storekeeper.

Same fellow who offered me $25 a month as a grub stake. Said that he owned the claims; didn’t know exactly where they were himself, as he had bought them at sheriff’s sale. Then he said: ‘But I give you notice that if you find any good ore on them, it’s mine, and that I do not authorize you to work on them.’ Those two groups of claims not only lie idle year after year, but the indefiniteness of their boundaries acts as a scarecrow and makes prospectors keep away from their vicinity.”

Just then a mutual friend, a service station keeper and mechanic, happened along. Said to Prospector: “Looks discouraging for you prospectors since this geophysical apparatus started in on your job, doesn’t it? You’ll have to go ‘way back and sit down.”

“Did you say discouraging?” said Prospector. “Why man, the word may be in your dictionary, but not in ours. Fact is some of the first prospectors who came to this neck of the woods were more than discouraged. They were mortally killed by the Apaches, as the cub reporter would say. Have to go ‘way back, will we? Why, sure! That’s our job. Didn’t think I was going to stay here and prospect cement sidewalks, did you? And as for that geophysical contraption, it can’t claw its way through the brush without help, can it? And just maybe it will need some prospector like me to show it where the ore is. And that don’t mean I want a steady job at it—but I might work long enough to get a grub stake.”

And he went away, remarking: “Got a lot more hard problems to work. Wish I had paid more attention to my Greenleaf arithmetic when I was a boy. ‘Lot in that book about percentage and discount which I did not savvy. Might come in handy when I’m checking up one of these here smelter returns.”

“Well,” says the service station man, “I wish you good luck. If pluck brings luck, you surely deserve it. And if Lizzie gets thirsty, bring her around. I don’t charge prospectors for water—and I’ll give her big drink of gasoline besides.”

rehab · HEALTH HAZARDS FROM DUST IN MINES TMJ 9 30 1929

THE MINING JOURNAL 9 30 1929

Health Hazards from Dust in Mines

By C. O. SAPPINGTOIV, M. D., Director, Division of Industrial Health, National Safety Council

The harmful effects of dust to industrial workers, has long been known. However, through a long period of time there were no distinct statistics proving the health hazards of dust to industrial workers.

Even a few years ago there was a sharp controversy on the injury of dust to coal miners, which is one of the oldest of industries and one where dust is always a problem. The statistics, especially from some of the older countries, seemed not to support the claim of this hazard to industrial workers. Less than five years ago an expert in this field read a paper before a Mining Congress in which he asserted distinct harmful effects of dust to coal miners, and his report drew caustic editorials.

But the last few years have brought a decided change of viewpoint, and now there is seemingly quite general acknowledgment of the harmful effects of dust to coal miners. It has been explained that the previous mortality statistics relating to coal miners probably were not complete. When the coal miner did develop serious respiratory affection he would leave the coal mine, probably to die an early death; but his death would not be statistically charged against the hazards of coal mining.

The harmful effects of dust in mining and milling operation, is usually a leading subject of interest and debate at Regional and National Safety Congresses. For example, the Transactions of the Mining Section of the 1927 Annual Safety Congress give a great deal of space to such a discussion.

One of the speakers before the Mining Section of this Congress was S. W. Meriwether, M. D., of the U. S. Bureau of Mines. He stated that within the last few years the medical profession had been making a rather close study of the effects of dust. He stated, as a general conclusion, that “The higher the percentage of silica in the dust, the higher the percentage of pneumoconiosis, or lung disease.”

He explained further that since statistics showed a low percentage of tuberculosis in coal miners, many investigators had come to believe that coal dust was harmless. In order to thoroughly test this matter, the U. S. Bureau of Mines conducted a series of experiments or studies in a number of coalmines in different states. Atmospheric dust samples were studied, and X-ray pictures from 514 physical examinations were studied.

“The conclusions drawn from this work,” he states, “was that coal dust when breathed in large quantities over a long period of time, and I mean years, will produce pneumoconiosis; but that the number of men in coal mines subjected to such clouds of dust, was and is comparatively small; that is, it is largely confined to the men working on and around machinery.”

This Investigation brought out a number of interesting facts. It was found, for example, that a man entering the coal mine after 40 years of age contracted lung diseases much more quickly than a man who would enter at 20 years of age. This was found true also for the disease caused by silica dust, or silicosis. Contrary to popular opinion, hazards from lung diseases in the coal mines were found more prevalent in the white race than in the colored race. Apparently the smoking of tobacco had no relationship to this hazard. However, the diseases of whooping cough and measles did seem to have a relationship.

This investigation indicated, as suggested, of possible dust hazard safeguards, that 9 per cent of the dust of an average mine was produced at the face of the cutting of the coal. Sixty-three per cent of the dust was produced by machinery, 84 per cent by shoveling, and 8 per cent on the roadway. But, it developed that only a small percentage of the coal miners were subjected excessively to dust. This included the operators of the undercutting and over-cutting machines, shearers and loaders.

It is generally known, of course, that methods of control of the dust hazards, from a health point of view, are more simple in coal mines than in metal mines. In coalmines, one of the most effective methods of control is the introducing of water on the cutter bar of the undercutting machine, and on the shearers and loaders. This water will not only lay the dust from the machine but also wet the bottom and decrease the amount of dust produced by the loading.
A very important associated factor in the control of lung diseases among miners is sanitary and welfare measures. A large percentage of coalmines, of course, do give attention to this matter; for in these modern days such expense is usually considered a good investment making for business efficiency.

Apart from its relation to respiratory diseases, dust plays an important part in the irritation of the eyes, ears, nose, and throat. This is indicated by the extensive prevalence of these troubles among miners.

Skin irritation also is often produced by a combination of dust, sweat, and heat, even though the dust may not have any poisonous effect in itself. Certain injurious effects of dust cannot be questioned. This is further emphasized by the study of tuberculosis in relation to the dusty trades. Fortunately, it is estimated that only about 25 per cent of dust inhaled actually reaches the lungs. The greater part of the dust is expelled either by sneezing or coughing, or it is swallowed.

The disease known as “Silicosis” is probably the most important one relating to the lungs and caused by the inhalation of dust. Harmful silica is encountered chiefly in industrial processes when crystalline silicon dioxide, granite, quartz and sandstone are used. The size of dust particles has much to do with whether or not they will cause trouble in the lungs. The larger particles, which fact may be contrary to popular opinion, are the least harmful.

Some mining operations are concerned with the so-called poisonous dusts, including those of lead, mercury, arsenic and others. This kind of dust is taken up by the liver after absorption through the lungs or intestinal tract.

The ordinary dusts of mining and milling operations are classified as non-poisonous, and usually they do not contain silica. They are irritant dusts, but they do result in the replacement of the elastic tissue of the lungs with an unyielding scar tissue and this condition is a predisposing factor in the development of lung diseases.

Preventive measures for dust hazards are always important. In one western mine, for example, the superintendent became alarmed with the discovery that they were receiving at their hospital every day, four or five men operating machines, who were troubled with hemorrhages. The mining superintendent immediately went underground to personally investigate the situation. He found that the mining machines were necessary to carry on their work, but he developed the plan of using water on the cutter bar of the machine and the difficulty was at once eliminated. It is estimated that the use of water in coalmines will reduce the dust in the air by 75 to 80 per cent. The elimination of this dust also lessens the hazard of cold dust explosion.

An interesting problem related to dust in the air is air contamination. For example, an excessive amount of dust might have the same general effect as if the oxygen of the air were reduced from 20 to 16 per cent. A mining official reported, for instance, that he had noticed that on the west side of his mine, where the air had been humidified through a sprinkling system, his workmen seemed more lively in the evening when they quit work than the men on the east side of the mine where the air was not humidified.

In another mine it was found that in the drilling of a six foot hole, about 60 per cent of the dust was formed from the first two inches of the hole. Thus, by wetting the spot for this hole 60 per cent of the dust was eliminated. The greatest problem was found to be to get the men to start digging in a wet place.

The superintendent of this mine summarized the prevention measures which he had taken to eliminate dust. First, all of their drilling was wet. Second, they wet down twice a day the stopes and laybys or partings where the cars were switched. Third, there was no blasting in the mine while the men were on theground. Fourth, they provided adequate ventilation, getting pure air up to the face of the operations and getting impure air containing the dust out of the mine.

This official stated, as his opinion, that he was “firmly convinced that it would take four or five times as long to contract silicosis in our mines at present as it would have four years ago.”
This official further stated that “a man who has contracted silicosis, or silicosis complicated with tuberculosis, is not the individual he once was and consequently he is more subject to accidents. He hasn’t the “pep,” he hasn’t the vitality, and a rock that he could have dodged three or four years ago will come down and bump him off with greater ease once he has contracted the disease.”

Wherever there is a noticeable amount of dust produced in a given industrial process, as in milling and mining operations, the important steps in the investigation on the dust hazard would be:
1. The quantitative estimation of crystalline silicon dioxide in the sample of air breathed by workmen.
2. A chemical analysis of the dust sample.
3. A computation of a frequency distribution of the particle size.
4. Examination of workmen for physical effects.

The United States Public Health Service, through its study “The Health of Workers in Dusty Trades,” suggests the following protective program:
1. Physical examinations for the purpose of determining general physical conditions.
2. Special physical examinations to determine the problem of specific disease of the respiratory system.
3. Sickness records of the nature and severity of disabling illnesses.
4. Control of occupational environment.

With reference to exposure to dust, Dr. Edgar L. Collis calls attention to the following points:
1. Inhalation of all forms of dust is accompanied by diminished power of chest expansion.
2. Diminished power of chest expansion so produced is accompanied by high blood pressure.
3. Animal dusts (apart from the pressence in them of disease germs) when inhaled, produce relatively fewer effects than do vegetable and mineral, dusts.
4. Vegetable dusts, when inhaled, tend to produce a type of chest affection best described as asthmatic.
5. Of mineral dusts, those composed of calcium salts are least injurious.
6. Inhalation of mineral dusts which do not contain free silica tends to produce irritation of the upper air passages and respiratory diseases other than a fibrous reaction.
7. Inhalation of mineral dusts which contain free silica is associated with an excess of scar tissue formation, and excess which bears a direct relation to the amount of free silica present.
8. In general, dusts appear to be more injurious as their chemical composition differs from that of the human body or from the elements of which the body is normally composed.

In summary, there is a constant study of the problem of elimination of dust as a health hazard. Much has already been accomplished toward the solution of this problem, and it is certain that much more will be accomplished.

rehab · ACCIDENTS FROM FALL OF MEN & MATERIALS TMJ 9 30 1929

THE MINING JOURNAL for SEPTEMBER 30, 1929

Accidents Due to Falls of Men and Materials

By F. D. CANJVON, Assistant Mining Engineer, U. S. Bureau of Mines; Washington, D. C.

While falls of ground take the heaviest toll in mine accidents, many other causes must be considered and every effort made to avoid them.

Introduction

In metal and non-metallic mineral mines during the 15-year period 1911 to 1925, 30.17 per cent of all fatalities and 18.57 per cent of all injuries were caused by falls of rock or ore from the back or roof or from the wall; 1.24 per cent of the fatalities and 11.05 per cent of the injuries were caused by rock or ore while loading at the working face; 6.66 per cent of the fatalities and 2.49 per cent of the injuries resulted from men falling down a chute, winze, raise, or stope; and run of ore from chute or pocket caused 1.48 per cent of the fatalities and 1.98 per cent of the injuries. Hence, accidents due to falls of men and material caused 89.55 per cent of the fatalities and 84.06 per cent of the injuries in these mines.

Accident prevention can best be assisted by each company’s preserving complete records of accidents classified according to cause and rate per thousand or 10,000 shifts. A systematic method of recording accidents and the employment of graphs or charts will be helpful to the company’s safety department in analyzing the causes of accidents. The purpose of this publication is to analyze data on accidents caused by falls of men and material in metal mines of the United States, and to suggest methods of preventing or reducing such accidents.

Falls of Ground

Among the numerous causes of fatal and non-fatal accidents in mines, falls of ground takes the heaviest toll. More than one-third of the total accidents in metal mines can be attributed to falls of ground in some form.

The accident records of a large mining company show that in five years there were 18,931 days lost by miners who were hurt by falling ground while drilling. Although the majority of these accidents were slight, there were three fatalities and several serious accidents. It is probable that a large percentage of these accidents were avoidable. Many miners are negligent in properly barring-down loose material before commencing to drill, and the vibrations set up by the drilling cause rock to fall.

Often the ground contains treacherous slips or seams and there are places where ground of this kind is in such large blocks that it will not sound “drummy” when tested. The boss or safety engineer, being familiar with the character of the ground, should warn new workmen of such danger. In some instances accidents could be prevented if proper timber were available for the miner to make his assigned working place safe. The alert boss will always make it a point to have proper material on hand for his men to work with.

There are many unavoidable accidents which no amount of barring-down or timbering will prevent, such as the breaking off of portions of rock where holes are being started. To avoid injuries resulting from this type of accident the Morenci Branch of the Phelps Dodge Corporation has designed a guard, which fits over the handles of stoping machines, and all miners are required to wear goggles when starting holes in order to avoid eye injuries. Another stringent rule of this company is that no one is allowed underground without a “hard-boiled hat.”

In stopes and drifts where it is necessary to use timber, the use of stringers to the breast when there is not room for timber will aid in the elimination of many roof fall accidents. At the Nevada Consolidated Copper Company’s mines in Ray, Arizona, either stringers are used, or else drifts are timbered to the breast. At the Miami Mine, Miami, Arizona, a unique method of using stringers to avoid the necessity of a bridging piece is employed. Iron hangers fit over the caps and a hook on the lower end supports railroad rails, used in lieu of wooden stringers. It is a very easy matter to cover these rails with plank.

Barring-Down

No other operation in mining requires the same amount of physical energy as “barring-down”; this is especially true if it is necessary to use a long bar. The fact that a man soon tires when prying with an eight or ten foot bar, in an endeavor to dislodge a rock which he knows should come down, is probably why many miners cease prying, and trust to luck that the rock will stay up, or that if it does fall they will not be under it. There is much to learn about the knack of barring-down in such a manner as to avoid unnecessary risk.

The careful man will clear away any obstruction that may cause him to stumble if he has to make a quick step. He will then sound the hack and select a safe place to stand while barring-down. Miners often start to trim down loose rock while standing on floors so “cluttered up” that a quick step could not be made with safety. Instead of sounding the ground, they pry down the first loose piece, they see, which often loosens the key rock and the miner is buried in the fall of ground that follows.

In some open stopes, the back is carried so high that barring-down can be accomplished only by working from ladders. Wherever it is possible, though, barring-down should be done while the men can reach the back by standing on the muck pile. This is especially important in horizontal cut-and-fill, and in aIl stopes.

There are times when a miner cannot bar or pick down loose rock due to the lack of tools, for some mine managers try to economize by not furnishing enough tools. Men will be seen working with bars or picks which are so dull as to be not only discouraging, but impossible to use effectively. A trip through the United Verde Mine, Jerome, Arizona, will furnish a contrast to the method just mentioned At various places throughout the mine, supply depots are maintained where miners may at any time procure tools.

Educating and instructing the miner in the proper method of doing work is not any easy task. However, it must be accomplished if worthwhile progress is to be made in accident prevention. Some companies have adopted a method of giving new men a period of instruction before
they are put to work in the face. Many have found strict discipline necessary to make some men regard the violation of safety rules as a serious offense.

Slide of Rock, and Rocks Falling Down Piles

Most accidents from rocks falling down piles, and from slides of rock, are caused by rolling boulders. Accidents of this nature usually result in injury to the feet and legs. Shovelers who fail to keep the rock pile pulled down and work in front of an almost vertical pile of loose rock, face the greatest danger. It is a simple matter from time to time to take a pick and pull down the muck pile, thereby in a large measure reducing the danger of accidents from rolling rocks.

Hard-toed shoes are also a great asset in the prevention of foot accidents. The Morenci Branch of the Phelps Dodge Corporation has found it necessary to furnish men working on grizzlies, with a guard to protect the shins and instep, in addition to the safety shoes.

Slabs or Rocks From Back and Sides

As a result of 4,059 metal-mine accidents from slabs of rock falling from the back or sides, there were 160,465 days’ lost time. One per cent of these injuries were fatal; 18 per cent caused injuries that resulted in more than 14 days’ lost time; 25 per cent caused from one to 14 days’ lost time; and 56 per cent caused no lost time other than the day of the injury. This amount of lost time would be equal to taking 521 miners, who ordinarily work 800 days a year, out of the industry for a period of one year.

Although it is improbable that all these accidents were avoidable, yet with proper precaution in the use of stulls and barring-down or timbering where necessary, unquestionably many of them could have been avoided. Miners often contend that there is a greater hazard in working in a rill stope than in a square set stope, yet the accident figures of a large company show there is little difference.

Although it is natural to conclude that more injuries from falls of ground occur in stopes and raises than in drifts and crosscuts, figures of this same company show that in proportion to the number of men working in these places, more men are injured in drifts and crosscuts than in stopes and raises. Apparently, when a man is working in a place he considers dangerous, he is alert and gives attention to his work.

By calling attention to hazards a boss can do much to prevent accidents; this has been proved by the fact that although bosses on opposite shifts have had their men working in the same places and consequently in practically the same hazards, a period of several months has elapsed without any injuries occurring to the men under one boss, whereas every month some member of the crew under the boss on the opposite shift was injured. Education and enforcement of regulations pertaining to the safety of men is the best method of overcoming accidents caused by carelessness.

Rocks Falling in Manways and Shafts.

In a five-year period, 649 men in one district were injured by falls of rocks in manways, probably resulting from three main causes, namely: (1) Defective chutes, (2) failure to keep loose rock cleaned out of manways, and (3) carelessness in covering manways.

Defects such as a lagging coming off a chute are unavoidable, but it is also inexcusable to continue to use a chute in this condition. Nevertheless, such a condition often exists indefinitely without repairing. In order to free rock hung in chutes, miners many times will cut a hole in a chute, and if they do make any repairs it is generally a makeshift job. In repairing chutes where square-set timber is used, it is generally more satisfactory to nail cleats to the posts to hold the boards used for the patch rather than to nail a short piece of board over the hole.

Keeping manways free of loose rock is not difficult, if the policy of doing things right when mining is followed. If, in a mishap, rock accumulates in a manway, the rock should be cleaned out, and the manway repaired before permitting it to be used as a traveling way.

Negligence in covering the top of man-ways when work is being done over them allows a great deal of rock to fall into manways. Many times miners blast over or near the top of a manway without taking the proper precautions to cover it. In order to gain access to air or water lines, many men pull a lagging from the top of a manway without previously clearing away the loose rock. The man who fails to cover a manway properly, or to remove the covering from one without first clearing away loose rock, is a liability to any organization.

Much of the rock, which falls in shafts, is the result of carelessness. Measuring pockets are used in conjunction with many skip chutes, so that if the skips are kept clean and ordinary caution is exercised, overloading of skips can be avoided. However if the cage tenders overload the auxiliary pocket, an overloaded skip will result. Where the type of gate used on the auxiliary pocket will permit, some cage tenders leave the gates on the main chute open, thereby making it possible for one man to do the work of two, but at the same time the purpose of the measuring pocket is voided. When cars are dumped directly into skips, overloading is due to carelessness on the part of the cage tenders.

With proper bonnets and doors on cages, the possibility of injury by falling rocks can be materially reduced. Failure to keep the lining boards in good repair between the service compartment and the compartments where rock is hoisted increases the danger from falling rocks. There should be doors with positive latches on all stations in shafts where rock is being hoisted. If a solid door will interfere with ventilation, one of heavy mesh wire can be used that will not interfere with ventilation and will still prevent rock or material from falling on the station.

Rock Falling in Chute.

Rock falling in chutes generally injures repairmen who have to work inside the chutes. With proper precaution, accidents of this nature can be practically eliminated. The top of the chute should be covered and a sign placed near indicating that men are in the chute. If feasible, the chute should be cleaned before any work is started when there is danger of objects falling from above. If the chute cannot be cleaned, a bulkhead should be put in to protect the workmen, and if a chute is covered on top, it is advisable to use a bulkhead for additional protection.

Falls of Tools and Material

During the ten-year period from 1917 to 1926 there were 26,650 men injured non-fatally while handling tools and timber. In this report the interest is centered chiefly in injuries from falling objects, but it is not possible to get the exact data as to how many injuries from handling tools and timber were caused by falling objects.

It is of interest to note, however, that of the 77 men injured in the mines of the Anaconda Copper Mining Company of Butte, Montana, during 1928, it was generally the injured party who left tools or timber where they would later fall on him. The elimination of accidents of this kind can only be accomplished by training the individual workers; no mechanical safeguard can be made to function in this respect.

It is with this type of accident that the training of miners invariably and automatically to make their working assignment free of all unnecessary hazards, counts most and will do the greatest good. The use of illustrated posters should do a great deal toward safety education.
The practice of throwing drill steel down manways or lowering it with a rope has resulted in many accidents. The use of a suitable “steel boat” will tend to prevent mishaps from this source.

Falls of Person

During a ten-year period from 1917 to 1926, 5,285 people were injured by falls on the surface at metal mines. During the same period 7,8162 underground injuries occurred. Data is not available to show the causes of these falls.

Falling Through Floors

In a five-year period during which over 11,000,000 shifts were worked, 308 men were injured by falling through floors in square-set stopes. No fatalities resulted from these fails, but 73 of the injuries were severe enough to incapacitate the injured persons for 14 days or more, 111 caused a loss of one to 14 days, and 124 caused no lost time except the day upon which the accident occurred. A total of 4,711 days were lost because of these accidents. That proper precaution would have prevented these accidents is believed to be a conservative statement.

Guard rails surrounding openings in the floor will prevent many falls. The use of cap lamps in lieu of hand lamps will prevent men from groping around in the dark who would not trouble to pick up their hand lamps. Care in laying floors will do more to prevent men from falling through floors than any other factor. Where small “caps” are used and the floor lagging does not have a sufficient hold on the cap, a “scab” or cleat nailed to the cap will often remedy the condition. By wedging, or nailing floors in place, the lagging can be prevented from moving. If, when men are entering a stope, they will give heed to the condition of the floors, put up guards where necessary, and be especially vigilant after blasting, as the concussion of the blast may have displaced the lagging, there would be a noticeable decrease in the number of accidents from men falling through floors.

Men Falling in Chute.

In most metal mines the policy is to use grizzlies over all chutes and guardrails around the chutes. This is in contrast to the practices of some twenty years ago when a chute generally was a yawning cavity 5 feet square, or even of much greater dimensions, with no grizzlies or guards to warn the miner of the presence of danger. At that period the acetylene or “carbide” lamp had not replaced the candle as a method of illumination for mines. That numerous accidents occurred from men falling in chutes at that time is not surprising, but at present most accidents of this nature are the result of infraction of safety regulations.

The openings between grizzlies should not exceed 10 inches according to present regulations. Often to facilitate work, or rather, to avoid it, miners or shovelers increase the size of these openings, so that in the event of a misstep there is greater danger of falling into the chute. Many men working in raises will take the grizzlies from a chute before blasting in order to save the time it takes to free the gnashes, and when they again enter the raise and proceed to bardown, replacement of the grizzlies is neglected.

In some places gnashes are not used. This is especially true if the boss is not concerned about safety or has an aversion to climbing raises. Probably on the whole, less supervision is given raise-men than any other class of underground workmen, and it is for this reason that they become lax in observing safety regulations.

There are places where it is impractical to use such a small opening in grizzlies that a man could not fall through. To meet such conditions on some of the waste passes in the United Verde Mine, men working on the grizzlies are required to wear a safety belt. When repairing or lining chutes there is always the possibility of falling. This can be overcome by using a good substantial staging to work from, and where this is not feasible a safety belt should be used.

Falling in Manways

An average of 800 men are hurt every year by falling in shafts, chutes, and man-ways. Falls in manways can be traced to defective ladders, to lack of ladders, to being overcome by gas or heat, to trying to climb ladders while carrying objects preventing the free use of both hands, and to several other miscellaneous causes. There is always the possibility of stepping into the opening at the top of a timber slide, or ladderway, in a stope, if guards have not been erected. When ladders are kept in good repair, and sollars and rest platforms, are put in at points not to exceed 80 feet apart, there is not much danger that a miner will fall unless he has been overcome or does not have the free use of his hands.

The United Verde Mine at Jerome, Arizona, have boxed in the timber slide, installed rest platforms and sollars, and “staggered” the ladders. In addition to these precautions, gratings are used over the top of the timber slide and ladderway, and guard rails are also used.
Proper ventilation prevents men from succumbing to gas, and it should have a cooling effect that will prevent prostrations from heat. The use of auxiliary blowers and flexible tubing has proved very successful in ventilating places which have impure or excessively hot humid air.

Fall of Men in Shafts

Accidents to men from falling in shafts are not common, but do occur. Many of these can be traced to men falling from buckets in shafts. In many instances it would be possible to use a cage in conjunction with a bucket. In places, equipping such a way as to enable men to use the cage instead of riding the bucket, the use of the cage should be compulsory. The provision of suitable gates on cages will eliminate the danger of falling off cages, but this is true only when the gates are kept closed; it is not uncommon to see cage tenders riding on a cage with all the doors open.

When working on ladders or stagings, a safety belt should be worn by workers if there is any doubt as to their security. All shafts should be guarded on the surface with a gate in preference to a guard rail. In most cases the platform around the shaft collar is covered with iron sheets which, when wet, become very slippery, and there is great danger that men will slip and fall under the guard rails into the shaft.

Gates should be used on all shaft stations and are preferable there, for the same reasons as they are on the surface. Shaft gates as a protection from falling rocks and material have already been discussed. Proper illumination around shafts is very essential and care should be taken to have lights where they will give the maximum benefit.

Men Falling in Open Stopes

Furnishing men with safety belts and insisting that they be used, will eliminate many accidents from falls. Education and proper supervision are necessary to make men use safety belts, as the men have a tendency to disregard such equipment unless forced to use it. It is only too common to hear of an accident that would not have happened if the man had put on his belt.

By the purchase of such equipment, the management of a mine acknowledges its necessity and at the same time admits the hazards of the occupation. When bosses and safety inspectors observe men deliberately ignoring the use of safety equipment, disciplinary measures should be used to insure the prohibition of further infractions of general safety practices.

Physical Fitness for Mining

In many instances there is doubt as to what incentive possesses a man to do many of the things he does, and from which he suffers injury as a result. In mines where no physical examination is necessary upon employment, it would be a very simple matter to hire a man who had a defective vision, is hard of hearing, or who has other physical disabilities. It is certain that a man with defective vision or impaired hearing is at a disadvantage.

Those who are not mentally alert will be more likely to be injured, than the men with active minds. Those who, due to age or a previous injury, have been rendered less agile than the average man, cannot move fast enough at times to avoid injury. Physical examinations would probably do a great deal toward showing up defects that, in time, could be proved to be the basic cause of accidents. A miner hard of hearing probably will not be aware of ground working in time to heed its waning. Defective vision may cause a man to sustain injuries from many sources.

Ventilation

The ventilation of working places will have a great bearing on accident prevention. In a hot, humid place, a man becomes fatigued and has not the endurance, or the will, to do the work that he could perform under better conditions; he will have a tendency to let all unnecessary work “slip” or to take a chance.

In some instances there is apt to be oxygen deficiency, which has the effect of making the miner less alert. Too much attention cannot be given to seeing that a mine is properly ventilated. Because 100,000 cubic feet of air per minute is entering a mine does not necessarily mean that men are not breathing vitiated air, or that the air is being properly distributed.

The question has frequently arisen as to what connection physical examinations, ventilation, and lighting have with accidents. In accident prevention, it is at times necessary to find the fundamental cause of an accident. A man may fall down a manway and be injured; he is injured by a fall without doubt, but if time were devoted to a more minute investigation, in all probability, it would develop that proper ventilation was not maintained in the raise, and the man was overcome with gas. To prevent recurrence of such accidents, the ventilation would have to be improved.

Lights

One mining company, in studying accident prevention, found that poor lights were the cause of many accidents. In order that the acetylene lamps might give a better illumination, a special reflector was obtained, and metal polish furnished, so that the reflectors could be kept bright. The appreciable reduction in the number of accidents was attributed to the improvement in lighting.

The electric safety lamp is one of the safest and best means for furnishing the coal miner with light. This type of light has the same intensity at all times, which is not true in strong air currents of lamps depending on fuel for open flames. Proper illumination of working places is so important that any time given to it can be considered as a valuable step in the right direction in accident prevention. There is no question that the up-to-date electric cap lamps give a much safer and more dependable light than any form of open lamp used in mines.

Conclusion

Probably the majority of accidents are the result of carelessness on the part of the workman and of the supervising official or officials. Men working in raises are given less supervision than any other class of underground employees, and these men become careless. Safety belts, hardboiled hats, safety shoes, safety leggings, goggles, and similar safety clothing reduce accidents. Guarding shafts, cages, chutes, and winzes, and properly timbering these places, aid in accident prevention. If those in charge of the mine management supply such safety devices as may be available, encourage the wearing of various kinds of safety clothing, and in addition promulgate safety regulations; they place themselves on record as being whole-heartedly in favor of safety, but there will be little if any reduction in accidents unless strict observance of safety practices is demanded and enforced through constant supervision. If strict supervision is given all workers, accidents from falls of men and materials will be practically eliminated.

rehab · ROCK AND MUD FLY SAFETY NOTICE TMJ 9 30 1929

rehab · TERRIBLE EDITH MINE RESCUE, IDAHO TMJ 10 15 1929

THE MINING JOURNAL

HECLA CREW RESCUES THREE TRAPPED IN TERRIBLE EDITH
Three miners, Carmen Pattrie, Jess Kerr and Russell Anstaugh, were rescued from a tunnel in the Terrible Edith mine at Murray, Idaho, by a crew of men from the Hecla mine, who plunged through flames at the mine portal and through swirling smoke until they reached the barricade behind which the imprisoned men crouched. The rescuers, after locating the miners, returned to the mine entrance for gas masks for the three men and brought the men from behind the barricade which they had erected against smoke that whirled into the workings from a fire at the mine portal.
The fire originated in the company’s barn and in its sweep destroyed the company headquarters’ building, garage, bunkhouse, cookhouse, blacksmith shop and compressor, inflicting property damages to the extent of about $80,000.

rehab · LETHAL ROCK GASES IN MINING DISTRICTS TMJ 10 15 1929

THE MINING JOURNAL

ROCK GASES FORM HAZARD IN CRIPPLE CREEK DISTRICT

The occasional occurrence of irrespirable gases in the mines of the Cripple Creek, Colorado, Mining District, has resulted in at least 35 deaths and considerable financial loss, and has been in part, the cause of the closing down of certain mines. These gases still form a hazard to life in the mines of the district as well as occasionally interrupting work. An investigation of the matter has been made by the United States Bureau of Mines in cooperation with the Mine Owners’ Association of Cripple Creek and the Colorado State Bureau of Mines.

The irrespirable gases are a variable mixture of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and usually oxygen. The usual percentage of carbon dioxide is 5 to 19 per cent, with the balance principally nitrogen.

Gas occurrences bear a definite relation to barometric changes, a falling barometer bringing the gases into the mine workings, and a rising barometer resulting in the recedence of the gases into the open spaces in the rocks. The most serious gas occurrences accompany periods of very low barometer.

Tests show that the Cripple Creek rock gases are of combined atmospheric and rock origin; they are essentially air depleted of more or less if its oxygen to which carbon dioxide has become added. This carbon dioxide results from the interaction of mine water and the minerals, chiefly the carbonates, in the district rocks. These gases are being formed at the present time, and a considerable reservoir of them exists in the open spaces in the rock strata and vein fissures.

The occurrence of irrespirable gases in metal mines is not limited solely to the Cripple Creek district; similar gases have been noted in Utah, Nevada, California, Montana, Oklahoma, other mining districts in Colorado, and in Europe and Australia. These gases have, however, proved a more serious mining problem in Cripple Creek than in most of the other mining districts.

The breathing by men of air containing considerable amounts of carbon dioxide and depleted of considerable oxygen has definite detrimental physiological effects. Where possible, the oxygen content of the air by volume at all working places should be at least 20 per cent and carbon dioxide content not more than 0.5 per cent.

The mines in the Cripple Creek District depend mainly for their ventilation and dilution of gases, on natural air circulation, supplemented by the exhaust air from drilling operations and occasionally by auxiliary blower (or exhauster) fans. A few mines use the pressure system, putting pressure upon the mine air and strata and to a certain extent thus holding the rock gases within the strata.

The pressure system of gas control is effective in holding back rock gases in a small mine, or portion of a mine, if the connections to other mines or parts of the same mine are tight enough to hold the fan pressure. It has little value in cooling a hot drift, as it tends to hold heat in; similarly the dissipation of blasting gases by this method, is difficult and often ineffective.

The small blower and exhauster with metal or canvas pipe to working faces has been found reasonably effective for the ventilation of small mines or parts of a mine; friction and air leakage curtail its usefulness very materially for pipe lines of 16 inches or less in diameter and over 1,000 feet long. The volume of air delivered by such fans is small and they
Have, in some cases, failed to take care of the rock gas problem satisfactorily.

There is no practical chemical means of absorbing the rock gases. When a drift is driven through loose, gassy ground, the sealing of such ground by the application of cement with a cement gun would seem feasible.

Gas control and the adequate dilution of large volumes of irrespirable gases has been solved in other districts by mechanical means of ventilation. Such mechanical ventilation has been obtained by a large air capacity fan located usually at the surface and supplemented, where regular coursing of the main air circulation to all working places was not readily feasible, by auxiliary underground fans and air tubing.

Similarly, surface fan installations having an air volume circulation capacity of 10,000 to 60,000 cubic feet per minute and supplemented by auxiliary underground blowers, either electric or compressed air driven, would be the ideal arrangement for the Cripple Creek District Mines. Such complete installation is one to be considered practically only in the wide extension of existing mines, the opening of new mines, or the reopening of old mines having a bad gas history.

The Bureau of Mines recommends the driving of frequent connections between levels of mines, the extension of the use of properly installed blowers and tubing for the ventilation of stopes, raises, and long drifts, and the placing of doors and bulkheads at advantageous points for the proper diversion of the naturally available or artificially induced air circulation.

Protection against the Cripple Creek rock gases cannot be had by the use of any type of gas mask. Self-contained oxygen breathing apparatus offer reasonable protection to wearers if worn by trained men, under good leadership, and if travel in them is done in unobstructed, level, or nearly level, passages and for not more than 1,000 feet from respirable air. Hose masks with hose leading to a fresh air supply offer protection to their wearers also, but their usefulness is limited to the short distance, which a hose can be used to conduct air at breathable pressures.

More detailed information is given in Serial 2865, “Rock-Strata Gases in the Cripple Creek District and Their Effect on Mining,” by E. H. Denny, K. L. Marshall, and A. C. Fieldner, copies of which may be obtained from the United States Bureau of Mines, Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C.

rehab · A I M E MEETING IN SF, CA TMJ 10 30 1929

THE MINING JOURNAL FOR OCTOBER 30 1929

A. I. M. E. WELCOMED TO THE SAME SPOT AS IN 1899

Nearly 500 delegates and friends registered for the 138th annual meeting of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers held at San Francisco, October 7 to 10. The group included some of the nation’s most prominent engineers, famous for research in geology and metallurgy.

The delegates were formally welcomed by F. W. Bradley of San Francisco, president of the institute, who called attention to the fact that in 1899 the organization was welcomed on the same spot, then the old Palace Hotel, which was built with money won from the Comstock mines and its brick work reinforced with old hoisting cables from the Comstock mines. The new Palace Hotel now occupies the ground.

William E. Colby of San Francisco, attorney and national authority on mining law, in his address stated that government control of mineral development is inevitable. Special mention was made of the situation which might be brought about in the mining world through carrying out of the Hoover administration proposal to transfer to the several states the surface rights to the remaining 200,000,000 acres of public lands.

Other speakers during the three-day session were:
Charles W. Merrill, former president of the University of California Alumni Association;
M. L. Requa, chairman of President Hoover’s oil conservation board;
George Otis Smith, director of the U. S. geological survey;
Dean Frank H. Probert of the University of California College of Mining and Metallurgy;
Professor C. K. Leith, geologist of international importance;
T. J. Hoover, dean of the college of engineering at Stanford University;
and Scott Turner, director of the United States Bureau of Mines.

October 10, the fourth day of the convention, about 250 boarded the President Jackson and the Korea Maru for Tokio, Japan, where they will be in attendance at the World Engineering Congress, held under the auspices of the Kogakkai, October 29 to November 7.

rehab · US GOV SILVER PURCHASES DISACCORD TMJ 10 30 1929

THE MINING JOURNAL FOR OCTOBER 30 1929

REVIEW OF SILVER CASE IN HIGH COURT IS DENIED

The American Silver Producers Association and two silver mining companies were refused a review by the Supreme Court, of mandamus proceedings instituted against Secretary Mellon, and the director of the mint, to compel them to make purchases of silver under the Pittman act.

The American Silver Producers Association, composed of the principal silver producers in the United States, and the Della and Spar Consolidated Mines Companies of Colorado, sought to compel the treasury department to carry out orders issued from 1918 to 1920, allocating silver dollars and silver bullion to an amount of approximately 14,600,000 ounces for subsidiary coinage.

The object was to require the government, under the Pittman act, to purchase up that amount for coinage in silver dollars. It was contended by the silver producers that allocation orders could not be cancelled.

Declaring that District of Columbia courts had properly ruled that those bringing proceedings had failed to show sufficient interest to maintain them, in that they had not claimed that they had silver to sell, the government asserted it had completed all purchases and coinage of silver required under the Pittman act.

It suggested it had the right to cancel allocation orders, contending that while there might be some question of the manner in which it had obtained silver to complete the coinage, there could be no question of the fact that every ounce of silver removed or sold from the dollar account had been replaced.

rehab · IMPORTANCE OF ASSESSMENT WORK TMJ 10 30 1929

THE MINING JOURNAL FOR OCTOBER 30 1929

VERDICT SHOWS IMPORTANCE OF DOING ASSESSMENT WORK

A warning to holders of unpatented claims that annual labor in full, must be done, was contained in a recent court decision at Silver City, New Mexico. Suit by ejectment was filed by Thomas Donohue and W. I. Dixson as plaintiffs against W. H. Bruening, A. L. Bruening and J.
H. Bruening as defendants, and involved the possession of the Alamo, Buckhorn, Keystone, Boston, Portland and Orphan mining claims in the Pinos Altos Mining District, Grant County, New Mexico.

The plaintiffs contended that the defendants had not done assessment work for the year July 1, 1925, to July 1, 1926, and that the claims were open for relocation on January 27, 1927. After being out some four hours the jury brought in a verdict for plaintiffs. White & Patton represented the plaintiffs, and Wilson & Woodbury were attorneys for defendants, who are Pueblo Springs, Colorado, people.

It is not known yet whether the defendants will appeal.

rehab · TWO PROSPECTORS TMJ 6 30 1943

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rehab · MISCELLANEOUS MINE NEWS WORD POST TMJ 3 30 1934

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rehab · RATCLIFFE CONCENTRATOR MACHINE TMJ 3 15 1933

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rehab · SMALL MINER AID TMJ 5 15 1939

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rehab · SILVER MINE IN PERU PIC EMJ 1922

rehab · MINE TAX CRISIS IN UTAH TMJ 11 30 1929

The Mine-Tax Crisis in Utah
Survey of a report by L. C. GRATON, Professor of Mineral Geology, Harvard University, explaining the necessity for fair taxation if the mining
industry is to progress and prosper.

Utah has become the stage for a drama that is of pre-eminent importance to every wining state, and indirectly to the entire nation. For many years active groups have been working toward placing more of the tax burden on the mining industry, in order that other occupations, notably agriculture, may be relieved. At the present time these groups have gained so much power in the legislature, and so intensified their efforts, that a crisis has been reached. Whatever the result, it is safe to say that it will be reflected in the laws of such states as Nevada, Arizona, Montana and Colorado, whose problems, in relation to mine taxation, are similar to those of Utah.

The present situation is born of a law passed in 1919, which established the method of taxing the mine by applying the regular tax rate to a multiple of the net proceeds of the mine. The law empowered the legislature to raise or lower this multiple by a majority vote. The multiple was set at three times the net proceeds and has been maintained there ever since, in spite of a constant threat by each succeeding legislature to increase it.

The present effort to raise mine taxes is backed principally by a strange alliance —that of the Farm Bureau and the Utah Teachers’ Association. It is worthy of mention that on most other economic problems these two groups are usually diametrically opposed, with the farmers in search of tax-relief, and the teachers asking for more money. Their cooperation now is due to the fact that, should mine taxes be increased, agriculture would bear a smaller share of state expenses, while the teachers would have a chance to increase expenditures, with the mines paying the cost.

Authorities who are in touch with both sides of the dispute, state that the attitude of the farmers is mainly due to the fact that they sincerely believe their taxes are too high, and that they do not understand the complexities of the mining industry. At the last session of the legislature the problem was carried to the point where not only an increase in the multiple was asked, but it was suggested that an occupational tax, and possibly an income tax, be applied to mines. Action was staved off, as it was obvious that sufficient facts were not available to draw up an intelligent and practical new tax plan. Instead a commission was appointed to survey the situation and prepare a plan to submit to a special legislative session, which will probably be called in December.

Attitude of the Mines

The mining industry has endeavored to maintain a fair attitude during these stormy days. It has affirmed and reaffirmed that it is perfectly willing to bear its just share of taxation, even if it should be more than at present, so far as it is able to pay. What it asks for, is an unbiased survey that will determine what a fair and equitable mine tax is, and how it may best be levied, and it is giving its best efforts toward effecting this. It justly believes that it has been treated unfairly in the past, as mine property has been assessed to full value, as was contemplated by the law of 1919, while assessments of other property have steadily decreased, reaching about fifty per cent of true value at the present time.

At the invitation of the mining industry, L. C. Graton, one of the most distinguished authorities on mining questions in the world, presented a report on “Mines and Mine Taxation” to the Utah Legislative Tax Committee. Mr. Graton, who has studied mining and its problems throughout the world, and has been connected with several great universities and public and private bodies, gives so lucid and complete an account of a difficult problem, that it should be known to every citizen of our western states. This article attempts to briefly present some of his findings.

Mines and Farms

The ignorance of the agricultural group on the subject of mining is perhaps logical, but most unfortunate. In its projected mine tax plan, it overlooks completely the great and fundamental difference between a mine and a farm. Obviously, the value of property, whether it be a mine or a building, must be an essential factor in any tax scheme.

Farm value is based on earning power. For example, if a tenant could pay $160 a year rent for a farm, and eight per cent was considered a fair return to cover taxes, interest or profits, the proper price of the farm would be $2,000.

In one vital respect mine valuation differs from this. The difference is in the life of the property. A farm, with proper care, will last forever. Crop after crop may be produced, and its capital value remains constant.

A mine on the other hand suffers a loss from each operation. Metal deposits are of a definite and limited size. And a mine must decrease in value, in direct ratio to the amount of metal mined. It is clear from this that the value of a mine producing $1,000 yearly is quite different from that of a farm yielding the same amount. In this one case, the owner can immediately realize his capital by selling; in the other, the value is steadily decreasing.

Depletion

Few people realize thoroughly the need of considering depletion in determining mine value and taxes. Many taxpayers of the state, notably the farmers, apparently believe that “depletion” is a vague term that gives the mines an unfair opportunity to dodge some of their tax obligations. As a matter of fact, depletion is recognized by every authority, public or private, as a necessary and appropriate factor in mine accounting.

Depletion is the sum of money equivalent to the reduction in value of a mine, caused, over any given period, by the removal of ore in the normal course of operation. Disregarding the other factors of mine operation, an example can be made in the case of a property that is believed to contain a million ounces of removable silver. The mine is valued at $160,000, giving each ounce of silver a unit value of 15 cents. Clearly, the value of the mine will depreciate 15 cents for every ounce of silver that is removed. The total removal during a year or twenty years is the depletion over that period.

Every business considers depletion in its accounting costs. A shoe manufacturer, for instance, purchases a large amount of leather with which to make shoes for the next five years. The leather used in each pair of shoes is considered in its selling cost, even though it was bought some time before. A certain amount of the sale price of his shoes must be set aside to prepare for purchasing more leather when his stock is exhausted. In exactly the same way, a percentage of the proceeds of mining operations goes into a depletion fund, to purchase new property when the present holding has been worked out.

Mining and the State

In no other state is mining of greater importance, than in Utah. The farmers and teachers of Utah actually have a more direct interest, though they fail to realize it, than many of the stockholders in the mines. Unfair tax burdens which would discourage and curtail mining developments, would not only imperil the incomes of thousands of small investors, but would deprive school teachers of positions, and remove a lucrative market for agricultural produce.

A theoretical Utah “mine city,” made up of all persons, directly or indirectly dependent, on mining or transportation of mine products, would have a population of ninety to a hundred thousand people, a fifth of the state. It would represent a tremendous part of Utah’s prosperity, income, land and property values, and market for all kinds of commodities.

Utah, industrially, is virtually dependent on metals and mineral fuels for her existence. Without riches in timber, or a great acreage in arable or irrigablc land, she is a great state, with almost unlimited possibilities for progress, because of her mines. In the all-around production of the five great metals she stands next to the top of the list, leading Montana, Colorado and other western mining states, except Arizona. Metal production represents more than 25 per cent of her total income, and the growing production is steadily increasing this proportion. It is the consensus of opinion, that the welfare of the state as a whole, is going to depend, to an increasing extent, on the welfare of the mining industry.

A further important point in relation to mine taxation is the f act that Utah is a state of relatively low-grade ores. Figures for 1928 show that Utah is the lowest grade producer of all the western mining states. The meaning is clear; the mines of Utah are down to the economic limit, and are working about the lowest grade ore that can be made profitable. When selling price falls, under such conditions, producers can mine only the richer grades of ore. When selling price rises, on the other hand, mine operators can afford to handle lower grade ores, and thus maintain an equilibrium, an approximately constant per-ton value.

It is clear that this economic equilibrium means that profit per-ton, is down to the bedrock in Utah, and that any serious inroads on mine profits, such as a greater tax burden, would menace not only the development but existence of the industry.

Mining and Taxes

Mines are fixed property. Farm implements or stock can be moved elsewhere, if conditions make it impossible for the farmer to prosper, but the mine operator, though his profits drop to zero and become losses, is powerless. Mines would have no escape whatever from an exorbitant tax burden.
The cost of metal production is almost entirely dependent on conditions within the state, while selling prices depend on conditions outside the state. The bulk of mine products is sold outside the state. Thus, if Utah mines can produce metals cheaper than they can be produced elsewhere, they will prosper accordingly; if not, the reverse is true.

If mine products were sold exclusively within the state, the mines could pass on the tax burden to others, as a storekeeper pays his taxes by adding the cost to the goods he sells. But mines have no such opportunity to shift taxes. On the other hand, they are forced to carry a tax burden that is fixed for them by other Utah taxpayers.

The mines are the largest users of power; they produce 80 per cent of the state’s freight business; the salaries they must pay are determined by the living expenses of workers, which include taxes. As a result the mines are in a wholly unfair position; they cannot shift taxes but taxes can be shifted on to them.

Insurance, Costs and Income

Now one more great difference between a mine and a farm appears. Both of these producers are valued in their entirety for tax purposes. This is equitable in the case of the farm, which normally, is wholly productive. Every acre is used every year. In mines, to the contrary, but a fraction of the property can be used for each year’s income. This is an inescapable fact. Part of the ore in a mine can be removed, and the rest must wait for future years before it takes on a monetary value. Yet the mine must pay taxes on all of it annually. No other kind of property is in such a peculiar position, or, therefore, suffers more from excessive taxes.

The average business carries insurance against the risks to which it is subject. Here mining must again be an exception to the general rule. None of the major hazards common to every mining operation can be insured against.

The orange grower insures against frosts, the banker against defalcation (non-payment of interest and services earned over a future period time; embezzlement without intent of criminal fraud), the manufacturer protects his stock of material and his finished product during transportation. The miner carries his own insurance. No company in existence will insure against exhaustion of ore bodies, or against any number of unforeseen calamities that may bring operations in a particular mine to an end.

Still again it is found that mining is in a position assumed by few, and no other industries, and this obviously must be considered in any form of mine taxation that is fair.

One of the major factors in the cost of mining is the risk, not only in operation, but in finding a piece of ground that will become a profitable ore producing mine.

To establish a manufacturing business, labor, water, power, taxes and other such concrete elements are considered, and the claims of any locality are quickly proven. Likewise, the farmer seeking a location to grow fruit or raise grains, can determine beforehand almost exactly what his chances of success are. And here again mines differ from the general rule.

Most, and sometimes all, of an ore body is concealed from the view in the ground. To determine whether a body will be rich enough for development is a matter of long and expensive search and investigation. For every famous mine, or even a reasonably successful one, hundreds and perhaps thousands of prospective mines have been discovered, explored, investigated and often operated for a time at a great loss. This is an unavoidable and necessary phase of mining development.

This is not only true in the beginning, but in the later stages of drilling. Ore bodies continue far below ground. It is impossible. from an economic standpoint. to construct or model the vast subterranean channels, before operations are started, that would be necessary to determine exactly how much ore any mine can produce. A certain amount of ore is seen, the best engineering talent is consulted, and production is begun, before it has been actually demonstrated that the enterprise will be profitable in the hope of finding sufficient ore to give an adequate return on the tremendous investment.

It is said that of several thousand location works on the famous Comstock Lode, from which a few active mines produced fortunes, less than 50 found enough ore to justify extensive development and still fewer ever paid dividends. It has also been computed that in the great copper district of northern Michigan, the aggregate investment, when interest over 80 years is considered, is equal to or greater than the dividends paid. A further illustration is the case of a great exploration company that, over a period of four years, was offered 2,783 mining properties. It investigated 2,194 of these, but finally found only eight worthy of purchase.

This money lost in exploration, and on worthless mines, is clearly a necessary and just part of mining costs. If a man goes deer hunting, and shoots a buck after several days’ search, he does not think the cost of his sport has been 5 cents for a shell, and the minute or two of time spent in aiming and firing. He considers the cost of the trip and equipment, all the time spent in a futile search for game. This is a direct analogy to mining explorations. The worthless projects must be paid for by the profitable ones, and a fair tax plan must take account of this.

Appreciation in Mine Value Deserved

There has been a disposition on the part of the legislatures in many localities, to regard appreciation in the value of a mine as a vicious and undeserved form of “unearned increment.” This attitude has been reflected, in various ways, in mining tax laws and the tax rate. The justification for this lies in the fact that many mines, profitable at the present time, are located on land that was purchased many years ago, from the government, at a low price. It is then deduced that the difference between the original cost and present value is “unearned increment” that should justly belong to the people of the state, and not an individual group of mine owners. A companion case is given of a person buying a corner lot and sitting by while its value appreciates, doing nothing to deserve his prosperity.

This analogy, however, falls down hard on investigation. As a rule, the mere cost of the land on which a mine is located is comparatively small. Tremendous expense and hardship must be borne in exploration, plant building and transportation. Endless effort, supported by courage and faith, must be given before the mine becomes a paying property.

Professor Taussig, of Harvard, has said, on the subject of unearned increment as applied to mining: “A mine is not, like agricultural land, or an urban site, a permanent instrument enabling the investment of capital to be continued without limitation of time. Its store is fixed—even though sometimes very large—and when that store is exhausted, there is no diminution of return, but complete cessation.

A multitude of failures in ‘prospecting’ is relieved by occasional success.

“Where there are many losses, there must be corresponding gains. . . Were it not for the chance of some great prizes, all this necessary work of exploration would not have been undertaken. Under such conditions, a high return on the lucky ventures does not constitute a true surplus...”

It is obviously unfair, to willingly allow the mines to sink vast sums of money in unprofitable enterprises, and then object, and frame the objections in the tax bill, when the occasional prosperous development yields good profits.

Mining Must Go On

Every time a ton of ore is removed from a mine, there is one less ton of that ore in existence. Demand for metals, on the other hand, steadily increases. As a result, good mines become harder to find. It is said that there are now fewer operating mines in the west, than there were 20 years ago.

The present day mining company has three alternatives for the future. When its mine is exhausted, it can stop activities, distribute whatever money is in the treasury, and go out of business. Or it may create a depletion reserve, out of the proceeds during the operation of the mine, to be used to buy another mine when the present holding is finished. Or, it may add to this depletion reserve enough money, saved out of profits, to buy a large enough mine to maintain the company on its present status.

The first alternative would mean a cessation in mining activity and cannot be considered. The second, likewise, means eventual death. Mines grow steadily in cost—a property worth a hundred thousand dollars some years ago is worth far more than that today. In consequence, the depletion reserve, which is based on the value of the present mine, during operation, would not buy a property of the same size and importance as the one that has been exhausted. A mining company following such a policy would gradually shrink in stature until it finally disappeared altogether.

The third alternative is the logical one, and the only one that will allow a company to maintain its position. Mining must go on—a basic industry that grows steadily in importance as our industrial age develops. If old companies went out of business, new and inexperienced ones would take their place and the result would be an economic waste.

Obviously, mine tax laws must take account of this necessity of providing for the future if they are to be just. Burdensome, disproportionate taxes, make such provisions impossible.

Certain minorities in Utah have opposed the mines for the reason that they are mainly owned outside the state. It is overlooked that in the beginning, Utah citizens had the opportunity to buy interest in mines at very low prices. If they lacked the courage, intelligence or capital to do this, it is certainly no fault of the mining industry.

A more logical attitude would be that, so long as mines are owned outside the state, Utah is fortunate in having an industry that contributes so much to the prosperity of every citizen and business.

Suggestions for a Tax Plan

The fore-going facts are mainly taken from the brilliant report of L. C. Graton. They may easily be checked upon, and proven. We get onto more theoretical ground in considering what should be done to remedy and clarify the tax situation.

As has been said before, the mines offer every aid to the state in helping to reach a conclusion that is satisfactory and fair. It was their original intention to prepare a model tax plan. This, however, was found, because of lack of facts, to be inadvisable. The mines ask that effective, intelligent administration be given any tax plan, and that changes be made carefully. To plunge immediately into some entirely new plan, would only increase the chaos. One experiment should be made at a time, but it should be proven sound before another step is taken.

At the present time, mines are doubly taxed: First, on an assessed valuation of $5.00 an acre for mining property, and second, on a valuation determined by three times the net proceeds. Though the first tax is small, it represents a form of duplicate taxation borne by no other business.
The industry asks that if the property tax be maintained, as applied to mines, the method by which valuation is reached be fixed in the constitution, rather than be subject to the whims of each legislature.

It may appear that an income tax is the best method of distributing the tax burden under the doctrine of “ability to pay.” The mining industry has not objected to this, but asks only that, if this is adopted, all property be subject to it, fairly and equally, and that all phases of mine operation be considered.

It is clear that present methods of arriving at mine valuation, by multiplying the proceeds by three, is unscientific. It fails to take sufficient account of the item of depletion, and other factors. Whether the multiple be changed to one or ten, it remains an illogical and hit-and-miss method.
Other tax suggestions have been made and will be considered. Whatever plan be adopted, however, it is clear that fair treatment of mining is essential to the progress, not only of the industry, but of the entire state.

Conclusion

The mine tax situation in Utah may very well set a precedent for other mining states to follow. It is of more than local application; it is of national importance, directly and indirectly. Mines should pay their share of the tax, and other forms of property should pay theirs. Ignorance of mining problems and conditions, mainly on the part of the powerful agricultural group, has prevented this in the past. The orderly, and prosperous development of the industry in the future, will depend on what action is taken now.

No one can possibly benefit from burdensome taxation of the mining industry. As has been pointed out, the teachers and farmers, in particular, must suffer irrevocably if mining operations are discouraged and curtailed. It is up to the Utah Legislative Tax Committee to consider all the problems fairly, and in an unbiased manner, for the sake of a great industry and the entire state.---THE MANUFACTURER.

rehab · MINE ACCIDENTS SUMMARY TMJ 9 30 1929

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rehab · IMPRESSIONS WHEN DEEP UNDERGROUND TMJ 11 30 1929

THE MINING JOURNAL

Impressions When Deep Underground

Editor’s Note: When Will Levington Comfort, nationally known magazine writer, and author of numerous western novels, visited his son in Bisbee, Arizona, recently, he made a trip through the Junction Mine. Upon emerging with a prayer of thanks for his safe return from a journey through the subterranean passages, he was asked for a few impressions gleaned as he explored the bowels of Mother Earth, deep down—far deeper in fact than he had ever been before—in the sulphide world which hundreds of miners daily call their offices. Mr. Comfort gave his impressions in the following article:

Impressions yes, but no attempt at facts. To write about a mine, for a town that is mine-wise, a town that is undermined, that reckons its time by shifts, and has a daily paper called the Evening Ore, would call for a lot more familiarity with stulls and stopes and drifts, than I got down at the base of the spine of the C. and A. No lack of presumption to write technically for Hollywood, or Boston, but not for Bisbee herself.

In the first place, I had to wait over a day for Jim Malley’s laundry to come back, having showed up for the plunge too glad altogether for mineral associations. “It isn’t that you’d just dirty them,” said Jim, referring to my sunlight raiment, “but you’d never want to see them again. Come tomorrow and I’ll fit you out.” Which was done on the minute the next day, and we entered the Vertical Limited at high noon.

There was presently a darkness such as was never known on land or sea. It was the super-dark of death, or a blow upon the head, or of being gassed in a dentist’s chair, a directionless dark; sensation of being shot up as well as down, then distinctly of both directions at once. A chewed paper wad shot through a pea-shooter may know which way it is going, but I did not. One of the miners was telling a funny story, parts of which I heard in something of the same condition, that Saint Paul witnessed his visions— “whether in the body or out of the body, I know not.” Nor did I hear the end of that story. He got out on the Seventeenth Hadean Gallery, and we were deeper bound.

One thing is always with you—the lamp. It is operated with compressed air and friction and spittle. It gives light and odor when lit, and carries an automatic device of warning. You suddenly feel an illness as if being whelmed in garlic and Naco fumes, and you know your lamp is out.

Then there is boots. In this particular case, they couldn’t have been Jim’s, but of some giant asleep in the deep, perhaps. So long as I stood still, they were quiet enough, but their idea of getting somewhere, and mine, were never the same; that is, we couldn’t get in step. I have always objected to being tied in chairs— high chairs, electric chairs, in flying ship seats, but if I could only have been tied in those boots, all would have been simplified. Jim Malley said that there were about 250 miles of drift under Bisbee and its environs. After doing most of this, he asked me if I minded if we stepped down 800 feet to the “Twenty-second.”

What I said couldn’t have been intelligible, for he construed acquiescence, and we left Ivan Jacoby, who had been our Virgil through timeless wanderings on the “Nineteenth” and set out on ladders for the planetary core. What I mean is the boots wanted to get there first. Holding on to the ladders and the lamp was simple compared.

“Just take your time. There’s no hurry,” said Jim. “There isn’t a bad ladder in the mine.

He went first and would have been surprised to know my thought. It was that he was a valuable man, well liked, trusted and admired, in the prime of life. If one of my boots getting away should kick him off the ladder on the way down, Cochise County would mourn a heavy loss. Moreover, no one was expecting me down at “Twenty-two” I hadn’t been sent for. Meanwhile Ivan Jacoby might have gone about his solitary affairs to regions subterranean, to Douglas and Tombstone, and I would be suspended between the nether planes for the rest of the eternity in the fumes of a lamp gone out.

Another thought had to do with one of the primary and central lessons of life— just to keep going. We meet it—everyone of us, every little while—just to keep on. “This, too, will pass I” is the bravest line in the language. The wisest, too, because all memory of past experience is called upon to utter it in the prolonged strains and stresses we are forced to meet here below, and below that.

And it came true at last, down there in the bright lights of the pumping station— after the last feeble wish to die with one´s boots on, gave way to solid footing on rock-bottom. Voices, faces, water! I placed the lamp down at a distance and drank with both hands out of a quart measure, the sweetest, coolest, most soothing drink since being misplaced in a desert long ago.

“I wouldn’t have you miss this for a million dollars,” said Jim, pointing to a marvelous layout of machinery—power to drive a battleship through a raging typhoon, but what I wouldn’t have missed was the whole experience, and the promise of dinner and daylight, and the hot shower less than a half mile away— straight up the shaft. I meant to tell you that the idea of the C. and A. mine is get copper. There’s a lot more down there. I can prove it. Bisbee Daily Review.

rehab · EXECUTIVE ORDER L-208 REVISION TMJ 9 15 1943

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rehab · DRIFTS & CROSSCUTS UTAH TAX TMJ 11 30 1929

DRIFTS AND CROSSCUTS THE MINING JOURNAL NOVEMBER 30 1929

The stage is set in Utah for a drama that is of tremendous interest to the entire mining industry of the United States and, likewise, to every citizen who wishes to see our basic industries progress. in November, a special legislative tax committee presented suggestions for creating a tax system that will be fair both to mines and to other industries in the state.

To the average person, this would not seem a difficult matter. However, mine taxation, due to peculiarities innate in the industry, is a mystery to most people. Mines, unlike most other real estate, become less valuable as they are developed. Every ton of ore taken out of a mine makes it just that much less valuable. On the other hand, every ton of crop taken off a properly managed farm adds to the value of the property.

Mining must go forward if western states are to develop to the limit of their resources. In the past, through a general misunderstanding of the needs of the mining industry, laws have been passed detrimental, not only to the mines, but to the whole states. Mines should not be given special favors in the tax rate but it is only the part of wisdom to treat an industry, which employs thousands of people and represents a major source of revenue for many states, with the utmost fairness.

rehab · D & C- ROMANCE OF THE RAILS TMJ 11 30 1929

DRIFTS AND CROSSCUTS THE MINING JOURNAL NOVEMBER 30 1929

“The Romance of the Rails” is the title of a great history of the American railroads, written by Agnes C. Laut. It is a stirring story of American initiative and enterprise.

Every conceivable obstacle stood in the way of the railroads’ success. An apathetic public jeered at the earlier efforts to provide rail transportation; it could not be convinced that it was safe or would make a profit. Mechanical difficulties ran all the way, from finding an engine that would run to perfecting rails, wheels and signals.

In New York, railroad tracks were torn up by indignant citizens, and in one city, they were declared a public nuisance. A famous newspaper issued a warning that “the use of steam with its train of coaches, its ‘soft effeminate cushions causing easement of bodies and legs,’ would rob passengers of manliness’.”

Miss Laut’s history describes great railroad personalities, the strikes and legislative battles of early times. It is doubtful if the close relation of railroads to all the people has ever been better expressed than in Miss Laut’s statement that the railways can prosper “only as the communities they service, prosper, and their empires can prosper only as the rails prosper. The well being on one is bound up in the well being of the other; neither can be hurt without hurting the other.”

rehab · D & C- BLASTING CAP DANGER TMJ 11 30 1929

DRIFTS AND CROSSCUTS THE MINING JOURNAL NOVEMBER 30 1929

In analyses of nationwide surveys of blasting cap accidents to children, made by the Institute of Makers of Explosives, for the years 1928 and 1929, it has been found that of the approximately 500 children seriously injured and killed each year, the majority of injuries were to the hands and the eyes. In most cases the hands were entirely torn away, and the eyes were put out. Injuries generally to the body, sometimes resulting in blood poison, followed.

Another interesting phase of the accidents revealed by the analyses, was the fact that a large majority of the accidents resulted from the children firing the blasting caps in residences, and other buildings, where the caps had been brought home, by careless persons.

The surveys show that most of the accidents occur in rural sections in the late spring, the summer and in the fall when the children play out-of-doors.

In its efforts to reduce the number of accidents, the Institute, composed of the leading explosives manufacturers in America, has prepared a one-reel motion picture for free showing, entitled “How Jimmy Won the Game,” and has distributed articles among newspapers and periodicals pointing out the dangers of the blasting cap as a plaything. The cap, used to detonate dynamite, contains fulminate of mercury, one of the most powerful explosives known to man.

Leaflets and placards have been distributed among the nation’s schools, and safety and welfare organizations throughout the country have been asked to co-operate.

rehab · BANKERS AND INVESTING TMJ 1 15 1930 D&C

Drifts and Crosscuts THE MINING JOURNAL 1 15 1930

Here is an addition to our Glossary:
Banker—A person who lends you an umbrella when fine and asks for it back when it rains.

“Looking backward, never mends what is past, but the light of past experience often shows us pitfalls that we might otherwise fail to see. The close of the year I 929 brings home, with renewed force, the homely truths of economy and common sense, which we are frequently prone to forget, and drives home with emphasis, the lesson that both in private and public spending, caution should govern our commitments.

Those who were caught in the collapse of the stock market through misplaced optimism, and failure to observe the ordinary rules of business sense, are bemoaning their losses. Communities that have outreached in the way of public improvements, are finding out in no less emphatic terms that eventually a day of reckoning comes, when obligations must be met, and our tax burden in this state, again eclipses all former records.

It is just as foolish for communities to buy public improvements on margin, hoping that population and assessed valuation will increase, as it is for the individual to gamble on the stock market. Those who bought stocks outright have few complaints to make, and the community or state that adopts a pay-as-you-go policy, while it may not make a spectacular showing, will have fewer regrets, and can face the future with confidence.

rehab · 1930'S ENVIRNMNTL LAW NOW THE CASE TMJ 1 15 1930 D&C

DRIFTS AND CROSSCUTS for JANUARY 15, 1930
THE MINING JOURNAL

Here is another one that Congress is proposing to hang upon the mining industry of the West.

Senator Norbeck of South Dakota, has introduced a bill which reads in part as follows:
“That hereafter mining locations made under the United States Mining Laws, upon lands within a national forest, shall confer on the locator no right to the surface of the land covered by the location, other than the right to occupy, under the rules and regulations relating to the national forests, so much thereof as may be reasonably necessary to carry on prospecting and mining, and shall not authorize the taking of any resource other than the mining deposits, or the occupancy of the land for any purpose other than prospecting and mining;

and,
It further provides that a patent issued hereafter affecting lands within a national forest, shall only convey the right to occupy so much of the surface of the claim as may be required for extracting and removing the mineral deposit, and that every such patent shall expressly reserve to the United States, Title to the surface of the land within the claim.”

It will be readily seen that the purpose of this Bill is to deprive the miner of any title whatever to the surface of his claim, and limit him to the use of so much thereof, as in the opinion of the officials of the Forest Service, may be reasonably necessary to carry on prospecting and mining operations. We all know what that means, It means that the mining claimant would have to apply to the Forest Service for permission to use a trifling portion of the surface of his claim, and for permission to use a little timber for mining purposes.

Even under present conditions mining operations are difficult enough, but with such a law in force as that contemplated by the Norbeck Bill, the life of the miner would be just about unbearable, and the future development of our mineral resources would be greatly hampered and retarded, —especially in view of the fact that most of the undeveloped mineral resources of the public land states are included in forest reserves.

Some of the disadvantages under this proposed legislation would be that every time a locator wished to sink a shaft, drive a tunnel, or make an open cut, he would have to go to the trouble, and submit to the expense and delay of getting a permit from the Forest Service, which permit, after all, might be refused; and furthermore, he would have no ground for buildings, and would not be allowed the use of water, or any other resource existent on the claim, and he would have no ground upon which to dump tailings.

I hate to be always writing letters to congressmen, but if they will persist in trying to throttle western mining, I must keep on writing letters and getting others to do the same thing. Now is the time to act…. Charles Willis, Publisher of the Mining Journal.

[REHAB NOTES: THIS WAS THE STORY IN 1930. CHANGE THE WORDS “FOREST SERVICE’ TO “BLM” AND IT WOULD APPEAR THAT MANY OF THE TENETS OF THIS BILL HAVE SINCE BEEN IMPLEMENTED AS FEDERAL POLICY TOWARDS ANY MINER, MINING COMPANY, PROSPECTOR, OR RECREATIONAL MINING CLAIM HOLDER.]

rehab · NW-STERN PORPHYRY COPPER PROSPECTS TMJ 1 15 1930

Northwestern Porphyry Copper Prospects
By ROBERT N. BELL, Boise, Idaho.
The second of a series of articles covering the principal porphyry copper prospects in the northwestern United States.
Particular mention is made of the Idaho Copper Company.

The most productive copper-gold ore deposit to date in the Snake River Province, is the Iron Dike Mine, which carries some remarkably interesting and controversial features from a geologic standpoint. The following quotation from the 22nd Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, by Waldemar Lindgren, made thirty years ago, covering this property in its early stages of adit development, is of keen interest in its general application to other outcrop condition of the province.

“The croppings are large masses of black and brown stained rocks, one knoll rising 75 feet above the general slope, and measuring 100 feet across. It is said that the croppings can be traced for some distance in a west-northwesterly direction. At any rate, few walls or fissures can be seen; one near the mouth of the highest tunnel, strikes north 55 degrees West, and dips 60 degrees South. The maximum width of the croppings is probably 200 or 250 feet. On the rusty surface of the croppings, scarcely any copper stain indicates the heavy body of chalcopyrite immediately underlying it. Holes a foot or two deep, show somewhat decomposed pyrite, but very little chalcopyrite, the latter appearing only a little farther below the surface.

The upper tunnel, for the first 100 feet, is in heavy ore of mixed chalcopyrite and pyrite; then follows 80 feet of poorer ore. A sharp contact here separates the chloritic greenstone from the dark-brown meta-andesite. Crosscuts extending 25 feet each way in the best part of the ore, show a width of four feet of solid sulphides which may average 15 to 20 per cent in copper.

The largest part of the tunnel is, of course, in poorer ore, consisting of disseminated pyrite and chalcopyrite in chloritic greenstone. There are also abundant quartz seams, veinlets and nodules, which contain chalcopyrite, and often a regular silicification of the rock may be noted. Zinc blende or galena rarely occurs, and a little antimony is contained in the best ore. The ore contains about $2 in gold, and 6 to 80 ounces silver, per ton. These amounts are apparently independent of the percentage of copper. The intermediate tunnel, 150 feet long, with a crosscut 125 feet toward the west, also shows a heavy body of sulphides. If the lowest crosscut, now being driven, exposes similar bodies of ore the deposit will be of considerable value.”

The original owners of this property seriously underestimated its remote situation, and transportation difficulties, before the branch railway was constructed. They developed the mine to the 400-foot level by crosscut adits and drifts on the vein, tying up several hundred thousand dollars in the enterprise, which failed to pay, in such a remote situation. The subsequent history of the property is of keenest interest.

In 1914, the writer called this property to the attention of Thayer Lindsey, now so prominent in Canadian mining progress, who obtained a long lease and option to purchase the property, and is said to have paid for it out of royalties on subsequent ore shipments. As the story goes, Mr. Lindsey and his associates invested just $5,000 in re-timbering and shaping up the old development for production. He took hold of the enterprise late in 1914, when copper metal prices were all shot to pieces by the U boat activities of the war, but he apparently had an uncanny foresight as to their early recovery. According to published records of the Oregon Mining Bureau, from December, 1914, to December, 1915, he shipped 480 cars of crude ore; subsequently built an up-to-date 100-ton capacity flotation mill, and established an elaborate modern camp, including a large boarding house, bunk houses and 80 bungalow-type cottages for married men.

The property was connected with the Idaho Power Company’s plant at Copperfield, four miles farther south on the river, where an abundant supply of electric current was made available for operating the machinery.

A shaft was started from the 400-foot adit level; in fact a winze was already down 100 feet at this point, in blank but highly oxidized gangue, which Mr. Lindsey recognized was not the bottom of the deposit. At a short distance below this winze bottom he ran into the most noted orebody of the property, which proved to be 150 feet in width, length and depth —an apparently isolated block of ore— that was richly and fairly uniformly sprinkled with pyrite and chalcopyrite in a very hard, siliceous gangue, and is said to have given average mill feed values of 5 percent copper, and $8.00 gold, per ton, with a production of 160,000 tons. A new shaft was sunk, near the portal of the lower tunnel, 440 feet deep through which this big ore body, and other ore bodies, were extracted.

The enterprise was actively operated for five years, until shortly after the close of the war, when it was shut down, and remained dormant for several years, and was subsequently sold in 1925 for $100,000 after a production that is said to aggregate $5,000,000 in gross value of crude ore and concentrate shipments, and $3,500,000 net smelter returns. The nature of this deposit and its development, subsequent to Lindgren’s studies, has proven quite a controversial problem with the geologists who examined it.

In 1926, the property fell into the hands of the Idaho Copper Company, and the three-compartment shaft was extended 200 feet deeper and below the level of the river, which is only 2,000 feet distant, some drifting done, and a large footage of diamond-drill work accomplished, particularly from the 740 level. This drilling campaign is said to have given some very interesting core results, indicating large bodies of ore with values ranging from 1 to 3 per cent copper, with the usual associated value in gold. Contrary to the shallow development promise, gold is the predominant associated value with the copper, and the silver unimportant, rarely exceeding a few ounces in the concentrates.

In its present development, the deposit looks like a tabular ore shoot, a thousand feet long, distributed by thrust fault movement, and broken into blocks or so-called boulders of ore through the later injection of flat dipping igneous dikes of yellowish and green basic igneous rock, and a thick zone of injection breccia which carries, in its matrix, marginal disseminations of chalcopyrite in bodies of ore, from a mere pebble, to blocks containing several thousand tons. These disturbed ore bodies, including the main 700 stope, which is said to have produced 160,000 tons of ore, are scattered through a disturbed zone 800 feet wide between two normal faults. The immediate bounding formation to the north is rhyolite, and to the south, the complex of greenstone formations with thick horizons of volcanic and calcareous breecias and conglomerates.

It has been suggested by some geologists that these disturbed ore bodies are fragmental boulders formerly associated with the neck or branch of a volcano of caldera proportions, and something on the order of the Braden Mine [Chile] South America. While there is no conspicuous surface evidence of such an orifice, the suggestion is not without value, as the vast accumulation of predominantly plastic material, which constitutes the 10,000 feet of associated greenstone formations, tuffs and breccias, must have involved one or more vents of such explosive character.

There is evidence of two such vents, several miles in diameter, farther down the river near Pittsburg Landing, with telltale patches of lignite coal indicating former crater lake marginal accumulations of organic matter. Such an orifice may exist near the Iron Dike Mine, and be obscured by the basalt cap, which covers the formation for miles in three directions. In 1926, the Iron Dike Mine was taken over by the Idaho Copper Company, and actively operated for over a year with a production of $70,000 in concentrate shipping values.

During its recent operation, a ventilation raise was extended from the 740 level, on the south side of the zone in virgin ground, to the 400 surface adit level. This raise was completed just before the operation was shut down, and passed through 100 feet of ore carrying sectional assay values of 1 to 8 per cent copper with the usual associated gold values. The full sectional dimensions of this ore body are as yet unproved.

The old mill on the property was partly renovated, and in the hands of a competent operator, formerly with the Utah Copper Company. The shipping grade of the concentrates was raised from 12 per cent under some previous leasing operations, to 22 per cent with $19.00 gold and a few ounces of silver per ton.

At this stage in 1927, the enterprise, with its associated properties, the Red Ledge and the South Peacock mines, got into difficulties resulting apparently from a factional quarrel among the company’s directorate, for control, and the enterprise was put into the hands of a receiver, and has been dormant for the past two years. This receivership was terminated during October 1929, and it is currently reported that this unit of the companys’ holdings is to be turned over to a prominent Arizona leasor, and operations on its further development and equipment, commenced at an early date.

In the vicinity of the Iron Dike mine, there are numerous promising copper prospects. The ore bearing greenstone formations are obscured by the thick flows of Columbia basalt, except for a narrow belt between the lower beds of the basalt, and along this side of the river, for 50 miles to the north, where the greenstone formations are cut by several copper bearing quartz porphyry dikes up to 2,000 feet in width, in the vicinity of Rush Creek, and Pittsburg Landing; the latter a notable ferry crossing of the river, about 45 miles north of Homestead.

The Imnaha River, 60 miles north of Homestead, with its source in the granite slopes of the Wallowa Mountains, has scored a canyon through the basalt series to the underlying greenstones, which exposes numerous copper bearing ore courses, both of the fissure and zonal type. One of these fissures, situated at the confluence of the two rivers, has a tunnel about 50 feet above the water level of the two streams through which the intervening point follows a massive vein of hematite, from five to 12 feet thick, carrying 4 per cent copper in the form of disseminated chalcopyrite and bornite. Smaller veins of much higher values are found in this vicinity and they all carry a good gold ratio associated with their copper values.

The third of this series of articles on Northwestern Porphyry Copper Prospects will appear in an early issue.

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rehab · INTENT OF THE MINING JOURNAL 6 30 1930

Drifts and Crosscuts

The Mining Journal is the only mining publication that intensively covers the whole of the western United States, and Mexico, and is devoted exclusively to it. It is thoroughly a western magazine, published in the West, by western mining men, for western mine officials, about western mines, western mining people, and western mining problems.

It is compiled exclusively for operating mine officials, and makes no attempt to cover the desires of a widely diversified list of readers. It is for the western United States, and Mexico—where the mining is—and makes no effort to cater to a wide geographical distribution.

Thus, The Mining Journal, catering to a single class of people, in a contiguous section, with identical interests, has become the leader, and has been accepted as such, by over three times as many readers in the section served as has any other publication.

It is alive and progressive, and ever alert to learn the needs of western mining people, and to serve those needs. It has grown to a strong position simply because of the splendid cooperation given it by the industry which it serves.

We get many hundreds of letters from those we serve. some complimenting us on the work which we are doing, others suggesting things we might do. We are seldom “panned,” except by our competitors who are not as much interested in the development of the west and western enterprises as we are. We are always pleased to learn how we can serve you better. Please tell us!

CHARLES F WILLIS, PUBLISHER

rehab · GOLD OVERPRODUCTION WORRIES TMJ 6 30 1930

Drifts and Crosscuts

A terrible calamity is about to envelope the gold industry, caused by over-production, much worse than the effects of over-production in copper, lead, zinc and silver, if we are to take at face value a statement published, and broadcast through the United Press, and purporting to come from a Japanese professor of the Imperial College. The statement is that he “estimates that there can be produced annually from Formosa Island $2,500,000,000 in gold.”

Just think for a minute what this means. The total production of California from 1 849, to date, is but a billion and a half, the richest area in the Americas today, produces a meager million a month, and here we are threatened with the production from a small island where there is to be almost twice as much produced annually, as California has produced in 80 years.

If we are to believe all that we hear and read, we may soon be able to regard copper, lead and zinc as relatively precious metals, or if we are able to maintain a gold standard, in the face of that enormous potential production, Japan will own the world, for it can buy it a couple of times every year.

I just wonder if this statement has any relation to a Japanese bond issue that is being floated, to show plenty of assets behind it, or whether some one has not stuttered a little, when it came to the 0-0-0-0-0. What is a few zeros, more or less, between friends?

rehab · FLOOD ROCK BLAST, LONG ISLAND, NY 6 30 1930

DESCRIPTION OF A RECORD BLAST OF FORTY-FIVE YEARS AGO

(By Albert Root, Vanadium, New Mexico)

In these days of great blasts and the breaking of immense masses of rock, about which we hear so much from time to time in the technical publications, it will be of interest to recall a great blast of 45 years ago; a blast that in many respects was epochal, and can well be compared with some of the very greatest of modern blasts. This event was in 1885, and was the occasion of the blowing up of Flood Rock, Long Island.

The details are thus: Including the galleries, from which 80,000 cubic yards were mined, and 275,000 cubic yards were blown up, there was something like three-quarters of a million tons of material handled, in addition to about the same amount of water, which was also blown high into the air. The rock thickness overhead, on which rested a varying depth of sea water, was from 10 to 24 feet high.

Four miles of galleries were first driven from a shaft, which descended to a depth of 64 feet below the sea level; 464 supporting pillars were left, having each a cross section of 15 feet by 15 feet. The blasting drill holes, 18,286 in number, were nine feet deep and three inches wide.

For blasting purposes, 110 tons of Rackarock were used. This was the last word in explosives of that day, being widely heralded as a super-explosive. In any event, it was far superior to black powder, as it could be set off by detonation.

The big charge was set off by electricity, also something quite novel for that time. A rock mass, nine acres in area, together with the superimposed water, was seen to rise a hundred feet into the air. It was all a success and the rock was thoroughly pulverized.

In reviewing some of the old press accounts of that day, it is interesting to note the attitude of the public, as expressed through the newspapers of that region, as the day approached for the experiment; to note the general uninformed status of the layman concerning physical laws, the fear, superstitions, and even religious prejudice, to which a like reaction in our present generation would seem most incongruous and out of place.

The old accounts indicate that many people were fearful that the explosion would result in a world catastrophe—that perhaps the world would split open, or at least would open up a fissure which would permit the molten interior to spew forth and in a fiery deluge, extirpating a large section of mankind from the abode of the living; to heat and boil the sea, destroying all life therein and the ships that sailed thereon.

Others, of a pious complex, protested that this thing was impious and contrary to God’s will and design. Some even attempted through the courts to stop the undertaking by injunction. Certain imbecile preachers shouted to their moronic congregations, that certainly such an unnatural cataclysmic blast would actually break through the rock arch which lies over purgatory, and thus, amidst an effluvium of a Satan, himself, with all his hosts of fallen angels, would once more be at large to stalk over the world, leaving a wake of woe, amidst the sons of men.

Many were truly apprehensive and moved inland from the surrounding cities to a safer and more distant place; others, of a more practical trend of mind, gathered near boats, prepared with scoop nets to gather a finny harvest. The old accounts say these were not disappointed.

Besides these, a treat crowd of interested spectators gathered on the heights to see the unprecedented event.

It was a solemn moment for the little group of engineers who gathered behind a log buttress to draw the switch, which would create an explosion, and consummate an engineering achievement on a scale never before attempted in the annals of their profession. It was not for them, a moment of levity. Their very professional reputations were at stake.

However, all went off well, and entirely according to their expectations. The earth did not vomit forth its molten inwards; neither did Lucifer (Lucifer, Son of the Morning) levitate his loathsome form to harry forth and blight the fair lands of Mother Earth. In this connection, however, it must be said that there were some, perhaps of an imaginative complex, who actually claimed to have seen the cadaverous visage of the Prince of Darkness, amidst the billowing clouds of yellow Rackarock fumes, and reports gave it that one man made an affidavit to that effect.

In another day and age, such a person would have seen Poseidon, himself, driving through the scud and foaming wrack of tumbling waters on his hoppocampus-drawn chariot, and with his attendant Nereids; the vision of rampant, spume-flecked steeds champing amidst the weltering waves, would have been very real to such a type, for such do the fancies of men conveniently conform their mental aberrations to the orthodox tradition of the age in which they have their being.

rehab · D & C- EDITORIALS TMJ 7 15 1930

Drifts and Crosscuts

The Wallace, Idaho, Miner comments on what it claims is the unfriendly attitude of a leading newspaper of that state toward the mining industry, and says:
“it was mining that carved Idaho out of the wilderness of the West. Mining is one of the great basic industries of the state, and the development of the vast and varied mineral resources, spreads prosperity far beyond the confines of the mining districts.”

It was mining, as well, that played a leading part in developing California, Utah, Arizona, and others of the great western states. Today the industry employs a vast army of well-paid workers, contributes a large share of state expenses, pays’ fair dividends to thousands of stockholders, and, directly and indirectly, consumes products and services of almost all other businesses. Mining prosperity is reflected in the general prosperity of the nation.

In view of all this, it is difficult to understand the attitude of those, whether newspapers or individuals, who advocate burdening the mines under a weight of taxation and legislation that would seriously menace their progress. Mining should pay its fair share of taxes, and no more, and no less. The state which deviates from this principle, will be first to suffer the consequences.
=-=-=-=
Included in a lot of good advice which Scott Turner, director of the United States Bureau of Mines, gave to the graduates of the Colorado School of Mines is the following:

“Write technical articles. I earnestly advise it. Do not be ashamed to begin. The young engineer often feels he is not competent to write. Try it. The only way to learn to write is to write. You will be astonished at how quickly you improve. It has been demonstrated that the surest way to learn everything concerning a subject is to write about it. Putting your ideas or experiences in writing tends to crystallize and clarify them. Before you can write clearly, you must think clearly. You hear much nowadays of the glories of self-expression. I urge you to apply this to your technical experiences.

“I know a number of cases where technical writing has brought a young engineer to the attention of important employers, and led to engagements which profoundly influenced his ultimate success. Diffidence in this regard is inexcusable; share with your fellow-engineers your thought, knowledge, and experience. Help them at the same time you help yourself.

The best example I know, in this matter of willingness to write and give to others detailed engineering knowledge and experience, is shown in the fine willingness and cooperation now being displayed by the leading engineers of this country by preparing, for publication through the United States Bureau of Mines. scores of papers on mining and milling methods and costs. I recommend to you the helpful spirit which made possible the production of these papers.”

Writing is a splendid training in developing a logical presentation of experiences or thoughts and serves to help a man sort out the material that is in his own brain into that which is consequential and that which adds but little. It naturally makes him weigh the relative importance of his facts and, in giving thought to material being put on paper, he arrives at decisions and conclusions that would undoubtedly be overlooked in merely a mental consideration of a subject.
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[observations in times of economic depression]:
Smith-Emery Company, chemists and engineers of 920 Santee Street. Los Angeles, California, have been broadcasting a letter which is full of good common sense and is worthy of far greater distribution than they may be able to give it. We are pleased to reproduce it in full:

An Open Letter—Re: Hard Times
“Frankly, times haven’t been any too good, and like Mr. Micawber, we have been largely sitting around ‘waiting for something to turn up.

‘We’ve been fed up on the truism, ‘business depression is a state of mind.’ This has been drilled into us by the current press, and by our political and financial advisers, local and otherwise.

Nevertheless, there is no use trying to deceive our selves. Call our troubles what you may—over-speculation, prohibition, tariff agitation, or over-production—we just have a suspicion that they are the culmination of a series of idiocies, overdue—and richly earned by diligent departure from lines of good sense.

“Personally—we are taking advantage of this slack period to spruce up generally around our establishment. Nobody has been discharged, nobody’s salary has been cut, and the payment of bills has not been unduly delayed. “Our employees have been imbued with the spirit of giving the best service possible, and the public has never been better or more promptly served.

“We are also doing a little extra advertising, giving out all the work we can to other concerns, and making a few extra calls on our friends and clients—not to talk ‘hard times,’ but just to shake hands warmly and cherrily say ‘Howdy!’

“While we believe careful consideration should be given to major expenditures, we do not believe it is a time for penuriousness or narrowness in thought or act; in fact, liberal, sound-thinking may be good for us, for the world is moving pretty fast—we are not the only ducks in the national or industrial puddle—we don’t want to be side-tracked over night.

“We may be getting a little deeper in the hole financially, but the hole is getting smaller all the time, and if we maintain our poise the hole will soon be closed altogether, and business resumed under better conditions than for years.

“Large concerns and public utilities employing thousands, should remember they have the same responsibility regarding the welfare of individual employees as the little fellow— the same responsibility for keeping the wheels of commerce moving, and they have no more license for discharging a lot of people who have faithfully served through good times than have the small concerns. In fact, it is more incumbent upon big business to do its full share in maintaining the employment balance.

“We are writing this letter in hopes that if you are not already earnestly working on the situation, you will join us in a sane effort to improve your, our, the community and the national business status.

“Many of those addressed have been associated in our business zone one way or another for over twenty years— and we have weathered various trying periods together— quite as bad or worse than that with which we are confronted.

“Don’t let us wait around any longer for some great political stunt to be pulled off, or spectacular financial movement to scintillate on the business horizon. Let’s get busy
—each putting his own house in order, thus showing confidence in ourselves, and the future, and we will soon forget that business has been out of tune.

“By and by, in years to come, we or our successors will be called upon to meet like periods of readjustment, for economic history does repeat itself.
“Will you join us in a sane house-to-house program of reconstruction?
“Yours, for a new flutter of the old flag I”
(Signed) SMITH EMERY CO.,
Chemists and Engineers.

Vol. XIV. No. 4
JULY 15. 1930

rehab · MINING IN AFRICA OVERVIEW TMJ 7 15 1930

MINING JOURNAL

MACLENNAN GIVES HIGH LIGHTS FROM AFRICAN TRIP

No serious menace to the American copper industry is offered by African copper, in the opinion of F. W. Maclennan, general manager of Miami Copper Company, Miami, Arizona, who has just returned from an extended trip around South Africa, with the Empire Mining and Metallurgical Congress. The trip lasted about six weeks, and covered 7,000 miles, during which the party visited gold, diamond, platinum, asbestos, and copper mining regions.

It is estimated, he states, that the four great South African mines probably have ore resources of 250,000,000 tons, averaging 5 percent copper, and, allowing for losses in mining and treatment, they should be able to produce equal to about five years production for the world, at the present rate. It will take about 10 years, or until 1940, before thay can enter maximum production on a daily basis of 10,000 tons each. This will mean an annual production of 12,000,000 tons, yielding 500,000 tons of copper annually. However, the normal rate of increase of consumption, 6 percent per annum, is expected to take care of the additional production.

“It does not occur to me as though these South African mines are a serious menace to the copper industry,” declared Mr. Maclennan. “I believe their average costs will be higher than the average in the world today. They will not be low-cost producers. I talked to a good many mining engineers, and they placed their costs at 10 to 11 cents per pound, similar to the costs in this district.”

Mr. Maclennan further states that while wages paid workers in African and Rhodesian mines are about one-seventh that paid in this country, the workers are physically capable of doing about one-seventh the work done by a like number of workers in this country. He explained this as being due, in a large part, to the terrific heat of the tropics, and the fact that slave traders from Zanzibar, in the old days, swept the Rhodesian district, taking all of the strong men and leaving only the weak and disabled.

A very entertaining account of his trip was given by Mr. Maclennan at a luncheon meeting of the Globe Chamber of Commerce. Mr. and Mrs. Maclennan sailed from New York on February 22, going first to London. After spending a week there, they sailed with the members of the Empire Mining and Metallurgical Congress, for Cape Town, South Africa, arriving there March 24. The next six weeks were spent on a tour of various mining districts. They also attended a number of state and social functions.

In making reference to the present copper market, Mr. Maclennan stated, “Recovery of copper depends on recovery of general business. The welfare of the copper producers depends largely on that of business. Building and automobile business are not satisfactory at the present time, and they use much copper.”

The meeting was attended by about 100 mining men from the Globe-Miami District, and neighboring mining districts, in addition to the regular members of the Chamber of Commerce.

rehab · MINERAL CONF AT GRANTS PASS, OR TMJ 7 15 1930

for JULY 13. 1930

SUCCESSFUL MINE MEETING HELD AT GRANTS PASS, ORE.

Problems of vital interest to the Pacific Northwest were discussed at the meeting of the Mid-Pacific Mineral Economic Conference, held at Grants Pass, Oregon, July 15. The purpose of the conference was to determine where the mineral deposits of Northern California, and Southern Oregon, are, what their extent, and the probable cost of mining same. It is hoped that the information obtained at this meeting will help to build an industrial program for the Mid-Pacific territory along mining lines.

Arrangements for the meeting were in the hands of a committee, headed by Albert Burch, general chairman, who presented some of the best mining authorities available. The program follows:
“Welcome to Grants Pass” Mayor George Fox;
“Greetings from Northern California- Southern Oregon Development Association” Pres. C. B. Gates;
“Purpose of Conference” General Chairman Albert Burch;
“Gold” P. R. Backus (Mariposa Orchard, Medford, Oregon);
“Copper” W. B. Robinson (Representative, American Smelting and Refining Company);
“Mineral Resources of Northern California and Southern Oregon” J. T. Pardee (U. S. Geological Survey);
“Coal and Silica” J. M. Lively (President, Lively Lime Products Co., Gold Hill, Oregon);
“Chromite” Albert Burch (Medford, Oregon);
“Financing” B. B. Harder (President, First National Bank, Medford);
“Limestone” W. H. Muirhead (Manager, Beaver Portland Cement Co., Gold Hill, Oregon);
“Carbonic Acid” [As in Carbonated Water]George Schumacher (Ph. D., Medford);
“Clay and Clay Products” Dr. Chas. T. Sweeney (Medford);

The formally prepared papers were presented, then followed by a general discussion from the floor. All oral statements were taken by court reporter, and this discussion will be thoroughly analyzed by a special committee in order to determine what can be done to encourage mining development.

Transportation came in for its share of discussion, and the question of the Crescent City Harbor project was viewed from many angles. According to L. A. Levensaler of the American Smelting and Refining Company, no great development in mining can he expected until the Crescent City Harbor is built, and a road constructed from the interior to that port.

The conference was sponsored by the Northern California-Southern Oregon Development Association.

rehab · MACKAY SOM HAS NEW MINERALS TMJ 7 15 1930

MACKAY MINES MUSEUM DISPLAYS NEW COLLECTION

A new selection of rare radium ores and minerals, presented by Edmund S. Leaver, Director of the Rare and Precious Metals Station, U. S. Bureau of Mines, and Henry A. Doerner, research engineer, was displayed by the Mackay School of Mines Museum, at Reno, Nevada, as a feature of Mackay Day.

New types of radium ore from the Belgian Congo, which revealed the new minerals beguerelite, curlite, dewindite, and others, which are alteration products of pitchblende, are included in the collection. These are later to be shown with the carnotite ores from this country.

Different types of imberlite, a diamond formation from several mines and pits of South Africa, and associated country rocks and alluvials were shown. The many specimens of non-metallics, and gems, as well as samples of mercury ores from the new discoveries, were particularly interesting.

rehab · MINER'S FIELD DAY IN BUTTE, MT TMJ 8 15 1930

MINERS’ FIELD DAY PROGRAM ATTRACTS 20,000 PEOPLE

Nearly 20,000 people attended the Miners’ Field Day program at Columbia Gardens, Butte, Montana, July 14. First aid, athletic contests, and dancing, formed the principal entertainments. This is an annual event, and is sponsored by the Anaconda Copper, the Butte and Superior, the North Butte, and the East Butte, Copper mining companies.

Inar Norgaarz won the mucking championship by shoveling a car in one minute and 53 seconds, thereby beating last year’s winner, John Espelund, who won second place this year by shoveling his car in one minute and 54 seconds.
The Anselmo first aid team won the contest for Class A teams, and the Tramway team won the first aid contest for Class B teams.
The members of the Anselmo team are:
Hanford Estabrook, John Langhorn, Walter Myers, Bernard Noon, Joe Stevens, Theodore C. Morel, Louis Bertoglio and Charles Monaghan. The men in the Tramway team are: Guy Osselo, Max Mogus, John Giachiano, Joe Lind, Joe Hocking and Larry Giachiano.

rehab · NEW PLANT AT GOLD HILL NV MINE (ROUND MTN) TMJ 8 15 1930

for AUGUST 15, 1930

GOLD HILL DEVELOPMENT CO. PUTS NEW PLANT IN OPERATION

Completed one month ahead of schedule, the 100-ton cyanide plant of the Gold Hill Development Company, was put into operation on August 1. From the time ground was broken, on April 1, J. W. Harcourt was in charge of construction until he was compelled by illness to retire on June 1. H. A. Johnson, superintendent of the Tonopah Mining Company, who designed the plant, also purchased and assembled material and machinery, and personally directed construction after June 1. Cost of the plant, $70,000, is considerably below the original estimates, and includes extras, such as a water system for fire protection.

The plant will operate at low cost, and with a small force of men, since the product flows automatically, from the time the ore enters the mill, until bullion is melted. Ore from mine chutes is trammed to the shaft, and dumped into an ore pocket over an eight-inch grizzly. The larger chunks of quartz are broken in the ore pocket, and the product is hoisted to the surface in a
one-ton skip, and dumped into the crusher bin, passing over a 1 ½-inch stationary grizzly, to a 10x 20-inch Blake crusher.

The product of the crusher, 1 ½-inch maximum, and grizzly undersize, is delivered by belt conveyor to a 225-ton mill bin, and passes thence to a, 5X5 Williamson ball mill in closed circuit with a Simplex Don classifier. The cyanide solution is introduced into the ball mill. Discharge from the ball mill will be 10 mesh, to a Duplex classifier in closed circuit with a 5x18-foot tube mill. The object is to obtain in this circuit a product of 80 percent 200 mesh. In reserve for further classification, if required, are three seven-foot Callow cones.

From the tube mill circuit, the crushed ore passes to a primary thickener, the solution overflow of which goes direct to precipitation, and the pulp to a series of agitation tanks. Due to the character of the ore, a 70 to 80 percent extraction is expected in the grinding circuit.

The pulp passes through three agitators of the Dorr type in series, to a Dorr thickener, and thence to an Oliver filter, discharging into a log washer to waste. The solution from the primary thickener for precipitation goes to a storage gold tank, thence to a shallow tank equipped with Butters leaves, for clarification, before passing to the Mills-Crowe precipitation equipment.

In cleaning up the Mills-Crowe, the precipitate is sluiced to a cleanup tank with a canvas filter bottom. The dried precipitate containing the gold is melted in a bullion furnace, of the type used at the Desert Mill of the Tonopah Mining Company at Millers, Nevada. A complete and modern assay office is connected with the plant, but in another building. The first cleanup was to be made August 15.

The mill started operating on 6,000 tons of dump ore, which samples $11 per ton, and ore reserves on and above the 225-foot level are estimated at 50,000 tons. A recovery of 95 percent or more is expected. According to Johnson, mill costs will amount to $2 per ton, and total operating costs, including metallurgical loss, will not exceed $6 per ton. J. N. Davis, who has had experience in mining in California, New Mexico and Nevada, has been chosen superintendent of the new plant.

rehab · MINERS WILL ANSWER TO CA FOREST RANGERS TMJ 8 15 1930

Drifts and Crosscuts

California mine operators are very much disturbed over a bill that has been introduced into Congress, which is modeled after Senate Bill S-4774, and which is designed to place in the hands of the Forest Service, the full power to control the use of the water or timber, on mining claims, in the national forests of California, even to the point of refusing the use of the same to the locator of the claim.

Water and timber, as well as ditches, pipelines, and other utilities, are necessities of mining, and in placing these beyond the control of mineral locators, the rights granted them by the Mining Laws of the United States, would be,. ‘to a great extent, nullified...

The proposed bill, if it became a law, would give to the Forest Service the power to control the use of mining necessities. Development of mineral deposits within the national forests would be at the discretion of forest rangers, who are not competent to judge mining requirements.

By withholding permission to use water, timbers or other necessities, forest officers might seriously hinder or prevent the development of valuable deposits of gold, and other metals and minerals within the forests of this state.

Such a law, if passed, would prove, very serious to the mining industry. Mining development is certainly restricted and handicapped enough now, so much that it is wondered where the new mines will be coming from, to take the place of those being worked, and every little while, someone pops up with another brilliant (?) idea, for making the path of the prospector a little more rocky.

It is time that the mining industry spoke its little piece to those in Washington who are presumed to represent us.

rehab · IGNORANCE VS NEW TECHNOLOGY TMJ 8 30 1930

How many times we condemn a thing simply because we, as individuals, do not see its opportunities and possibilities of development?

It is the inclination of all of us to “knock” that which we do not understand, and it must be remembered that our statements of today, probably made in all sincerity, may sound just as foolish and ridiculous a few years from now, as the following editorial which appeared in a prominent eastern newspaper about three score years ago.

“A man about forty-six years of age, giving the name of Joshua Coppersmith, has been arrested in New York for attempting to extort funds from ignorant and superstitious people, by exhibiting a device which he says will convey the human voice any distance, over metallic wires, so that it will be heard by the listener at the other end. He calls the instrument a telephone, which is obviously intended to imitate the word “telegraph” and win the confidence of those who know of the success of the latter instrument, without understanding the principles on which it is based.

“Well informed people know that it is impossible to transmit the human voice over wires as may be done with dots and dashes and signals of the Morse code, and that, were it possible to do so, the thing would be of no practical value. The authorities who apprehended this criminal are to be congratulated, and it is to be hoped that his punishment will be prompt and fitting, that it may serve as an example to other conscienceless schemers who enrich themselves at the expense of their fellow-creatures.”

Foolish, indeed, is the man who says today, “It can’t be done,” for he is likely to be interrupted in his statement by the announcement of the man who has done it."

rehab · AMERICAN METALS TO MOVE INTO S AFRICA TMJ 10 30 1930

for OCTOBER 30, 1930

AMERICAN METAL ACQUIRES STOCK IN AFRICAN MINES

Expansion of the holdings of American Metal Company, Ltd., in Africa, has been revealed, with the announcement that the company has acquired additional shares in two companies interested in the development of copper mines in that country. Purchase of the shares, is to be accomplished through the issuance of stock of the American Metal Company, to the Canadian Selection Company, Ltd., present holder of the shares. The company already has an interest in the Roan Antelope Mines, Rhodesian Selection Trust, B’Wana M’Kubwa Copper Mining Company, Ltd., and other copper companies operating in Africa.

The American Metal Company is to receive from the Canadian company, 800,000 ordinary shares of the Roan Antelope Copper. Mines, Ltd., and 1,000,000 ordinary shares of the Rhodesian Selection Trust, Ltd., in exchange for 350,000 shares of the American Metal Company common stock, and $1,000,000 in cash. The stock, to be delivered to the Canadian Selection Company, is not to receive dividends until December 1, 1932. Application is to be made to the New York Stock Exchange, for the listing of the new shares on that date.

The Rhodesian Selection Trust, Ltd., has a two-thirds interest in the N’Kana Mines, in southeast Africa, and the Roan Antelope Company has acreage in the Mufilera, and other mines, in Rhodesia. The Roan Antelope Company’s properties have proven 75,000,000 tons of 3.3 percent copper ore, and it is estimated that it will be in production late in 1932. The extent of the company’s copper resources has not as yet been delimited, but it is thought that the mines will produce upward of 200,000,000 pounds of copper annually by 1934 or 1935.

The company has an authorized capitalization of 6,000,000 ordinary shares of the par value of 5 shillings and 1,500,000 shares of 7 per cent debenture stock. A. Chester Beatty, mining engineer and chairman of the boards of directors of the Roan Antelope, and Rhodesian companies, is to be on the board of the American Metal Company.

L.

rehab · MORE LAND RIGHTS ISSUES TMJ 12 30 30

for DECEMBER 30, 1930

William H. King, junior United States Senator, from Utah, has publicly stated that, in the event endeavors are made in the short session of congress this winter, to take action on the public domain surface rights’ proposal, of President Hoover’s Conservation Commission, he will demand consideration of his senate bill which proposes granting to the states the entire unreserved public domain, including minerals.

The, senator’s bill goes beyond this, in that it gives the states full rights to the minerals underlying the national forests and parks, recognizing merely the right of the government, to the surface rights in these forests and parks, together with control of lumbering and grazing within these reservations.

Senator King is opposed to the suggestions of the commission, recommending control by the federal government of mineral rights in the unreserved public domain, and he joins in the general opinion that during the short session of congress, the public land and conservation laws will not be revised.

Governor George H. Dern of Utah, voicing his opposition to the suggestions of the president’s conservation commission, several days ago issued the following statement:
“I have yet seen no reason why I should alter my views as expressed at the conference of western governors, held in Salt Lake City, eighteen months ago. At that time former Governor I. M. Dixon, of Montana, then Assistant Secretary of the Interior, delivered the president’s message to the governors assembled in the conference. It was in that message, the president suggested the formation of the conservation commission, and asked the co-operation of the governors in selecting the personnel.

‘The more I go into the question, the more I am convinced that the fears I expressed at that time were well justified. The federal government has gone over Utah with a fine-tooth comb looking for mineral values, which it is now, and was then, proposed to reserve. The surface rights, in my opinion, would be more of a liability than an asset, even leaving out the subject of federal aid for highways or of reclamation.

“Stockmen all tell me that the public domain ranges of Utah are overgrazed, and this condition would necessitate a campaign of range regulation, which in turn would cost the state much money, and would yield no revenue to the state in dollars and cents during the period the ranges were in the process of restoration. The reclamation fund, it is true, would not be entirely depleted of revenue if the federal government retained the mineral rights of the public domain, as part of the royalties derived from such rights goes to that fund, but the fund would be at least deprived of whatever revenue comes to it at present from the sale of public lands.”

=-=-=-

PROSPECTORS RETAIN MINERAL RIGHTS IN DEATH VALLEY AREA

E. S. Giles of Goldfield, Nevada, Consulting Engineer, and Surveyor, has been advised by the United States Land Ddepartment, that the recent withdrawal of lands in the Death Valley area, will not affect the mineral rights of prospectors. Under the provision of the act, the lands shall at all times, be open to exploration, discovery, occupation and purchase, under the United States mineral laws.

The, area withdrawn for a new national park development, which includes a large part of Death Valley, extends from Death Valley Scotty’s famous ranch in Grapevine Canyon, to within three miles of Trona, California. It includes the old mining towns of Ballarat, Panamint, Skidoo, and Greenwater.

rehab · FURTHER THOUGHTS ON ORE DEPOSITION TMJ 2-15-1931

THE MINING JOURNAL

Further Thoughts on Ore Deposition
By CHARLES E. PHOENIX, Mining Engineer, Bellingham, Washington. A discussion of the article by A. R. Fletcher
published in The Mining Journal of December 30, 1930.

The article appearing in The Mining Journal of December 30, 1930, entitled “Where Does the Ore Come From?” brings up a question well worth one’s attention.

Whether the discussions, that are sure to follow will materially alter the views that are held is a question, but it is hoped that it will bring out a number of facts relative to the physical condition of deep deposits, that may prove of value in this discussion, and as Mr. Fletcher states, retard the mystery of ore genesis at least one step.

“Diastrophism”—the mountain building forces, which contrast with “tectonic” in that the latter has more to do with the form and structure, may be evidenced on a continental, regional, or local scale, as a structural study will show. The “Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes” in Alaska, the eruption on Kodiak Island, and the known volcanic disturbances in the North Pacific, are examples of diastrophism on a regional scale.

Diastrophism becomes cataclysmic in its intensity, when that force hitherto exerted on a broad, continental scale, enters its secondary stage, and produces folding, faulting, crushing, and overturning, forming vast tectonic blocks, and breaking them up into smaller ones, with the consequent phenomena of volcanic action and lava overflows. From then on, there is occasional recurrence of the disturbances, regional or local, and of varying intensity until a condition of stability is attained. Toward the close of this secondary stage of activity, localized areas were developed, which favored the concentration of an eruptive magma of enormous force, which, further reducing the resistance of overlying strata, burst forth as eruptives, either in the form of peridotites, andesites, or basalts, forming a structure suitable for ore deposition.

There is no question that fracturing and fissuring in such rocks as granite, extend to unknown depths, and in the case of metal deposits, to the “matte~magma.” The theory that a fissure or fracture to the depth of the “matte-magma” would remain open for any period of time, with only an occasional contact of the walls, is open to serious doubt, even though the depth to the “matte-magma” be, what we might consider, shallow.

What might be considered the magmatic depth, beyond which modern mining efficiency would be impractical, might very properly be called a wild guess. Certain it is, that any approach toward the magmatic origin, would be heralded by unfailing signs of heat, and in some cases, emanations of carbon-dioxide.

Granite, of the common gray variety, has among other constituents, about 70 percent silica and 1.09 percent of water. Its crushing resistance is from 300 to 1,200 tons per square foot. Assuming heat temperature to increase approximately one degree Fahrenheit for every 60 feet or more of additional depth, then, theoretically at the depth of the “matte-magma”, the walls would be certain to “flow” together, and at a shallower depth would close by spalling from the pressure of occluded gas (steam).

It is most unlikely that a fissure would be formed, by a thrust fault, to a fluid magma, with all but barometric pressure removed, except an occasional wall contact. The forces that formed the faulting and fissuring to that depth would speedily fill the fissure with magma, made more fluid by the explosive energy of steam.

If, as may be the case, deep fissuring would speedily close by expansion of the rock—which I have termed flowing—or by minute spalling at a lesser depth than

the “matte-magma”, then the emanations to reach the zone of depression would have to be very liquid, or, more correctly, gaseous, and the metals either in solution, or in the nature of things, volatile.

Some authorities claim that the metal values are carried by gel—a form of colbid matter—some by a magma, which is about the same thing so far as density and fluidity are concerned. Yet we know that mine waters carry immense and varied quantities of the elements, and many of these waters are acidic and supernormal in temperature, which is a factor in holding the elements in solution.

The faulting and fissuring of an area may be evidenced as having occurred in several stages by the character of the crystals of the block en masse—chemical changes effected by solutions at depth, with the original mass in more or less plastic state; next by intense and deep fissuring to the “matte-magma” and the filling of the fissure with acid dykes and feldspars, and metal-bearing magmas, which differentiate in solidifying; and in other cases, by another series of faultings to “depth”, and the deposition of metals by mineral-bearing chemical solution. Alongside these acid dykes we may find one or more of the precious metals in association with other metals, and in association with such elements as sulphur, arsenic, tellurium, etc.

The force of gravity, exerted as pressure by overlaying rock strata, which of itself generates heat; the chemical reactions taking place within that belt termed the lithosphere, together with its slight but nevertheless present wave-like action, are all factors in the manifestation of phenomena of volcanism and earthquakes. Steam is the dynamic factor in all eruptive or explosive phenomena of volcanism, and in some instances, earthquakes.

Water of saturation, that would be steam or vapor at ordinary atmospheric pressure, becomes a potential factor of eruptive magnitude at the comparatively shallow depths in the lithosphere. At much greater depths, it would cease to be an explosive factor, owing to a lower saturation point and increased resistance. Water of crystalization released through intense heat, would become an occluded gas, and would be an eruptive factor.

The fumes of sulphur are the most predominant gas in the volcanic eruptions, and sulphur is the most abundant of the volatile elements found associated with metals in ore bodies. Other substances such as the chlorides of ammonium, iron, calcium, etc., as well as the sublimates of lead, copper, zinc, and other metals, are products of volcanic activities. Again, these elements are found in crystalized form in vein deposits, the results of deposition by magmatic waters.

From the evidence we have, it seems logical that metals, at the depth of the “matte-magma” or reservoir of the metals, though obviously in chemical solution under static conditions, are not in chemical solution during the stage of migration, from the parent magma, to the zone of deposition. At the initial movement toward egress, the explosive energy of the confined gases soon converts them into a state of gaseous solution. But it is evident that they are not deposited in that state.

The gaseous solution must traverse the fractures and faults of the crushed zone, under the impulsion of enormous pressure, until it reaches the zone of cooler rocks, when it becomes a chemical solution, and continues to traverse the metal-bearing zone, cooling and depositing its contents progressively, until the filling is complete.

In connection with this paper, I am going to submit a few observations,
(a) Attention is directed to the Comstock Lode of Nevada. My citation is drawn from memory—as I have no definite information immediately at hand. But this fact is pertinent, and, I deem, sufficient for the purpose. After the mine reached a certain depth, the temperature changes began to increase, out of proportion to the normal rate. When the extreme depth was reached, the heat of the workings was so intense that work of mining had to be carried on in short relays, and under a spray of cold water. Now, and here is a problem for a geological theorum, given the exact ratio of temperature increase for each level and sublevel, to the deepest part of the workings, and the depth at which each observation was taken, plus the changes in character of the gangue and wall rock, and whatever gases were present, and it might be possible to construct a curve of value in indicating an approximate depth to magmatic conditions. The lode is Solfataric in origin.

(b) On the 81st Level of the Portland Mine, Victor, Colorado, Cripple Creek District, the south end of the Portland Mine is 10 degrees warmer than the north end. Carbon dioxide gas forms a dangerous factor in the work of mining the south end. At the time I was there, it had not been definitely determined whether it escaped from rock as an occluded gas, or escaped from depth through very thin, minute fractures. The water that was pumped from this mine and other deep workings into the long drainage tunnel K, was nearly 70 degrees, Fahrenheit.

(c) The three true-fissure veins forming the Lode System of Central City, Colorado, have well nigh perfect walls for a depth of 3,000 feet. At a depth of 400 feet, on one of the veins, a careful examination revealed the presence of serpentine. The lode system was not formed by the thrust of an eruptive magma, though it was unquestionably a disrupting factor or aid. The Argo Tunnel, driven to de-water the lode system encountered very acidic waters.

(d) The copper deposits of Red Mountain, Cascade Range, in Chelan County, Washington, consists of a very fine grade of copper-sulphide ore, in a vein nearly 250 feet wide, and over 2,500 feet below the outcrop. The vein is of crushed and faulted granite, with firm and steeply dipping walls. Extensive faulting of a minor nature was encountered before the main vein was reached, and each had copper sulphides. The vein has an iron capping, and is distinctly traceable for a long distance to, and through a mountain range. It would be interesting to follow up the development to that point with a geological study.

(e) The Gold Hill mining property adjoining the Azurite Mining Company in the extreme eastern end of Whatcom County, Washington, furnishes an excellent surface study of extreme faulting and fissuring, and chemical alterations en masse of rock, of the entire area of lode system. It well illustrates statements made in this article.

rehab · A FEW MINING ADS MINER INTEREST

SEND THE OLD LADY TO WORK 7-5-1919

STOPERS AT WORK EMJ 10-6-1928

rehab · WHERE DOES ORE COME? FROM TMJ 12 30 30

DECEMBER 30, 1930

Where Does the Ore Come From?

By A. R. FLETCHER, Consulting Engineer, American Metal Company.

Suggesting that the constituents of ore bodies did their traveling as gases, condensed to solutions only when they neared the surface where ore deposition occurred.

There is probably no thoughtful mining man who has not, from time to time, asked himself where ore came from. It is one of those insoluble, but recurring perplexities, that plagues a man in his reflective moments, as do the mysteries of germination, growth, death, and possible immortality. To throw your light on a back of ore, 20 or 30 feet wide, waiting to be broken, is a sweet sight, but, at the same time, to realize that you have looked for its downward continuation below, on the tenth level, and then not find it, is not so comforting. If ore bodies pinch out with depth, as we know them to do, how did the ore bodies get to the places it occupies in commercial quantities, near the surface? How could such a considerable quantity of ore-making material ascend the underlying fractures, without leaving convincing traces of its passage?

There would be small excuse for embarking on this article if geologists were inquisitive. As a matter of fact, most of them are not; instead, they are studious. Turning to the geologists for an answer as to where the ore came from, we elicit no satisfactory response. They merely obfuscate us with terms like vein-dikes, solutions, magmas, and gels. I sometimes suspect them of falling in love with the sonorous Latin and Greek terms of their profession. They seem inclined to turn a technological vocabulary into a ritual, to be pontifically intoned, rather than use the terms of that vocabulary as tools, continually to be scrutinized for defects, and re-sharpened and reshaped to cope with new experience. They have not answered satisfactorily the question propounded in this article, “Where does the ore come from?”

Geologists, for the most part, cannot answer the question. For that matter, neither can I, but I can at least attack it, and summarize, and generalize the experience gained, at the expense of much sweat, and ladder climbing, in many mines. I hope to indicate a line of attack that has been neglected. I believe I can make the mystery of the birth of ore recede one step, and that, in the last analysis, is all we ever do with the mysteries that surround us in that wonderful world—make them retreat a step at a time.

It may be well to begin the serious part of this paper by summarizing some of the things we know that are true of all mines, or of a sufficient number of them, to make the generalizations valuable:

·Mines occur in regions of igneous approach.
·Intrusions and dikes are notably numerous in the vicinity of mines.
·Rock temperatures at a given vertical distance below the surface, in the vicinity of mines, give evidence of being, or of having been, higher than those found in non-mineral regions at the same vertical distance below the surface.
·Sulphur is, or has been, present in the ores of most mines.
·The ores and gangues of veins are not like the wall rock, and it is difficult to conceive them as having been derived either from the adjacent wall rocks or from other deeper seated rocks of the region, the existence of which may have been revealed naturally by erosion, or artificially, by the perforations of the diamond drill.
·All veins were once faults.
·The mineralizer that creates an ore body, follows the course of least resistance, which is available to it from its source, to the place of deposition.
·The fractures, faults, joint planes, shear zones, and their intersections, which define
·the channels traversed by mineralizers, tend to diminish rapidly in width and number, as depth is gained.
·Movement makes mines.
·Minor movements, many times repeated during mineralization, along planes of weakness already established before the advent of the mineralizer, make great mines.
·The cataclysms associated with regional faulting and mountain building, do not produce mines. The secondary adjusting movements that inevitably follow such periods of cataclysmic activity, do produce mines, provided they occur at the right time.
·The relatively feeble adjusting movements, characteristic of a period of mineralization, and occurring repeatedly along previously defined planes of weakness, penetrate more deeply into the crust, than the original cataclysmic movements that created the planes of weakness.
·Ore deposition is a phenomenon associated with the recession of igneous and dynamic activity from a district.

I believe most mining engineers will subscribe to the soundness of the generalizations above stated. There is nothing new in them except the emphasis placed on movement, as an agency, in the formation of ore bodies. Professional geologists, with few exceptions, think of ore bodies in terms of chemistry, and are only beginning to realize the all-important role in which movement plays in the formation of an ore body.

The rest of my premise has to do with matter, and is of easy acceptance. Matter is palpable to us in three forms: solid, liquid, and gaseous. In its solid form, matter will neither flow, nor is it easily compressible; as a liquid, it is mobile, but incompressible; only in its gaseous manifestation, is matter both mobile, and compressible. The matter that finally comes to rest to form an ore body, has had to travel, and it has had to do that traveling in one of three forms, which matter is capable of assuming. It has had to traverse exceedingly small openings, and afterward fill large ones. It must have continually had to adapt its volume to the varying cross-sections, and curiosities of the channels it has had to traverse. Only in its gaseous form, can matter plausibly be imagined as performing this feat.

Geologists have summarily dismissed this hypothesis, that the mineralizer could assume a gaseous form, on the ground that at the depths under consideration, the pressure would be so great as to preclude the existence of matter in gaseous form, but their thinking is faulty because the static pressure of the rock does not affect the free space of the fracture. Once admit that fractures penetrate to the depths where ores originate, and the difficulty of pressure disappears.

Theoretically, at least, the pressure in the open space of the fracture need not exceed that indicated by a barometer. The static pressure of the rock would not affect the opening, but would be transmitted across it, at points where one wall of the fracture, touched the other, or around its ends. Thus, to deny that gases can exist by reason of critical pressures at great depth, is to deny that fractures communicating with the surface can exist. To deny the existence of such fractures, is to deny a channel not only to gases, but to solutions themselves, and thus nullify the present pet theory of ore formation, based entirely on the migration of solutions and solids.

We have considered movement and matter in the preceding paragraphs, but we must bear in mind that in dealing with mines, we are dealing with corpses, in much the same sense as a paleontologist does, when he handles and describes a trilobite. The movements that made the mines we look at, have long since ceased; the matter that formed ore long ago, came to rest. Igneous activity is dead in most mining districts. To study it, therefore, we are forced to go to volcanoes to glean what facts we can. Do gases play much of a role in the igneous activity of volcanic areas? Certainly they do.

We can state the following well-authenticated facts about volcanic activity:

·Lavas contain tremendous quantities of entrained gases.
·The character of the gases emitted, changes as volcanic activity subsides.
·Copper, lead, and silica, have been observed deposited directly by sublimation, in small fractures, in the cooling lava.

Observe that our only opportunity to study igneous activity, in play, is presented by volcanoes, and that we are unable, tacitly, to ignore the role played by gases in considering these phenomena, as has been done in the case of ore deposits, which are also the products of igneous activity. But not in all mines is igneous activity quite dead. At the Huanchaca Mine, in Bolivia, on the 450-meter Level, which was well over 2,000 feet below the outcrop, water bubbled from the rock at 130 degrees Fahrenheit, so charged with carbon dioxide gas, that a special ventilating system had to be devised to rid the mine of it. In the bottom of this mine, we, therefore, still had conditions analogous to the surface conditions attendant upon expiring volcanism, where it has been well authenticated that the percentage composition of expelled gases increases in CO2, as volcanism expires.

The three factors that affect mines— movement, matter, and igneous activity— have now been briefly reviewed, and it remains to elaborate a theory of ore deposition, which will not do injustice to any of the observed facts. This I shall try to do in the following paragraphs.

Underneath the rock-forming magma, from which the igneous rocks as we know them at the surface, are formed, there must exist a matte-magma containing sulphur, and the metals. This matte-magma would consequently be heavier than the rock-forming magma, just as matte in a blast furnace, is heavier than the slag, that floats on its surface. The matte-magma is conceived to be the source of the metals, and sulphur found in veins. Only under extraordinary conditions, do fractures penetrate deep enough to tap the matte-magma. It is for that reason that mines are such rare occurrences, geologically speaking.

Exemplifying this theory, the typical history of the origin and development of many vein mines is somewhat as follows:

·Regional anticlinal folding of the sedimentary rocks to the point of failure.

·Regional faulting (usually thrust) paralleling the crest of the anticline.

·Intrusion of igneous rocks into the broken sedimentary structure.

·Minor faulting (usually normal) of the sedimentary igneous complex along its lines of weakness with introduction of silica into some of the faults, thus turning the faults so intruded into veins.

·Further repeated minor faulting along the already developed lines of weakness causing fracture, re-fracture, and crushing of the silica in the veins, and accompanied by the introduction of the metallic sulphides, provided their source is tapped. In such cases, these sulphides traverse the deep-seated, and tight fractures, in volatile form, and only sublime, or condense, to form solutions near their present points of deposition.

·Finally, post-mineral faulting and intrusion sometimes occur, but they are much less important in character than is generally assumed.

Reference is made to the accompanying sketches, where the stages of the sequence described, have been diagrammatically illustrated. Among the many Mexican mining districts to which the sketches apply are Inde and Velardena, in the State of Durango; Parral, in Chihuahua, and Concepcion del Oro, in Zacatecas.

As this article has been somewhat polemic in character, a fitting way to close it will be to turn to the Socratic method; ask ourselves some questions and see whether we can answer them:

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Q. Why should quartz almost always precede, and not accompany metals, into veins?

A. Because quartz is a mineral that can conceivably be developed from the rock magma, as we know it, and the rock magma, being superincumbent, solidifies, and is tapped by fracture, before the matte-magma can be.
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Q. Why are metals the last constituents to enter veins, and why is their entry so often associated with expiring and quite minor fault movements?

A. Because the rock-forming magma must cool and solidify to a sufficient depth, to make the matte-magma accessible. The rock magma must be a solid structure down to its junction with the matte-magma, before metal from that source can ascend. You cannot crack a syrup, but you can crack a solid, and cracks must extend to the matte-magma, before its metallic gases can escape.

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Q. What is the most easily conceivable form of matter, which could traverse such minute channels in sufficient quantity, to account for the accumulations of ore found near the surface, and yet leave no trace of its passage?

A. A gas.

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Q. Why have geologists, so far, failed to recognize so obvious an explanation of the source and migration of ore?

A. Gases in their upward passage frequently encounter water near the surface, or magmatic steam, and the other gases condense to form solutions, as temperature falls, with release of pressure in the larger apertures near the surface. The phenomena of deposition from solution, which have been exhaustively described by geologists, are really secondary phenomena, superficial in character, but so general in occurrence, as to have interposed a barrier of the commonplace, to the questing sense of their students.

The commonly accepted theory of today is that solutions and solids, containing ore-stuff, as such, had to ascend the subjacent fractures, to reach their place of deposition. The theory of tomorrow, will probably be that the constituents of ore bodies did their traveling through the tight fractures of underlying depths, as gases, and that they only condensed to solution, when they reached the more generously proportioned, and cooler apertures near the surface, where ore deposition occurred. This theory explains why so many mines are shallow, and why, in so many of them, no trace of ore is found in the subjacent fractures, and it also makes clear why no traces can be detected of the corrosion, or schistosity, which would reasonably be expected if non-compressible solutions had been forced through those apertures, under necessarily tremendous pressure in sufficient quantity, to account for the ore bodies found above.

rehab · CONSERVE THE MINERAL LANDS MINING JOURNAL 2 28 1931

Conserve The Mineral Lands!!!!
By MILES CARPENTER, Mining Engineer, Tucson, Arizona.

A study of the growing bureaucracy in relation to mining operations on the public lands and some of the obstacles encountered

Distressing as is the present condition of the mining industry, floundering in the mire of slack demand, and low prices for metals, a far greater menace is seen on the horizon of the future, and is the more dangerous, because its full significance will not be realized for a few decades, when the great mines of today have finished yielding up their stores of metal, and the cry goes out for new mines.

This menace lurks in the present reckless dissipation of the nation’s mineral lands.

The National Government, Trustee for all of the people in controlling the public lands, is directly responsible for the situation, and alone holds the power to avert the impending disastrous consequences. The public at large is asleep to the situation. The citizen in touch with the problem, and having the welfare of the nation at heart, can do no less than bring attention to this vital matter.

Nation Without Mining Laws

To understand clearly the present situation, we must review briefly the history of federal mining legislation, as affects metals in the Western states.

Prior to the acquisition of California, and the great Southwest, from Mexico in 1848, there had been no discovery of precious metals on the public lands of the United States, and no need had arisen for mining laws. Although the Mexicans had held this vast area of over 334,000,000 acres for 300 years, they had made no important discovery of gold; but American prospectors in the new land had found gold, even before the Treaty of Peace was signed on February 2, 1848. Ten days later, Cal. R. B. Mason, Military Governor of California, abolished by proclamation, the Mexican laws and customs that had prevailed in the California regions, for the denouncement and operation of mines.

Miners Make Own Laws

There was no United States statute authorizing individuals to appropriate minerals discovered on the public domain, which now contained lands later characterized by the Chairman of the House Committee on Public Lands, as “the richest mineral possession on the face of God’s earth.”

The proposal of the Federal Government to turn over the public lands to the states, has created a great interest in the public land question, and its relation to the future of the mining industry. The sentiment of mining men seems to be that the states have not shown their ability to handle their own lands, and that bureaucracy, as bad as it has proven, is better than political state administration.

Such was the situation in the gold rush of ‘49. From all quarters of the globe, adventurous ones flocked to California. The tide of fortune hunters brought miners from Cornwall, Devon, and Derby; from Spain and other countries of continental Europe; from Chile, Peru, and Mexico. Fortunately the influx held a majority of Americans from the older states, many of whom were miners from the Appalachian region, and all were familiar with the principles of local self-government.

The national government neglected to provide laws to regulate mining, but the miners themselves were not slow to take the matter in hand. There was no law granting the right to mine, but neither was there a law denying this right, so silence was taken as consent. Rules and regulations were formulated, embodying principles taken from mining laws and customs of all the world. These self-made laws carried one feature that could be adopted with profit, by any governing body, when a rule or regulation did not meet conditions that arose, it was promptly changed.

In the 14 years which elapsed between the discovery of gold in 1848, and the passage by Congress of the first mining law in 1866, thousands of miners from all lands, controlled only by their own rules, mined from the lodes and placers on the public domain, a billion dollars worth of the
precious metals, and had millions of dollars invested in plants and improvements, without an expression of assent or dissent from the owners of the land.

Congress Passes Liberal Mining Law

Agitation of the question of mining rights on the public domain reached a serious stage throughout the country, in the winter of 1865. One faction advocated royalty on minerals as a source of revenue, to apply on the immense public debt arising from the Civil War. Another group insisted that no distinction should be made in disposing of mineral lands, and other public lands, while a third group, which proved to be a substantial majority, were in favor of legalizing the same free occupation, and use of mineral lands that the miners had taken on their own account.

The purpose of the bill, as declared in the first section, was that “the mineral lands on the public domain, both surveyed and unsurveyed, are hereby declared to be free and open to exploration and occupation by all citizens of the United States.”

“This was the first mining law enacted by Congress,” says the Americana, “and it is the first instance in history where a sovereign, as owner of the minerals, broke away from the old regalian rights, and made to the citizens, an absolute gift of all the mineral wealth, without condition and without limitation.”

Considering the need of the United States for revenue, the action of Congress was an eloquent acknowledgment that the policy of free and unrestricted mining rights, by 14 years of trial, had proved to be for the greatest public good.

Six years later, May 10, 1872, the mining law was passed that, with unimportant additions, regulate mining today. The liberal spirit of the law is suggested by its title: “An Act to promote the development of the mining resources of the United States.”

This law, the general features of which are familiar to all prospectors and miners, was patterned after the rules and regulation already in use. It met the requirements of its time, and the mining industry continued to thrive. In the words of an official of the Bureau of Mines, “Under the stimulus of these benign statutes, the golden treasure has been mined from the valleys and the mountains, and the country has been enriched beyond the most fantastic dreams of those who placed these laws upon the statute books.”

But despite the boasted liberality, when the miner secured patent to mineral land, he was charged $5.00 per acre, plus the expense of surveying and patenting, plus his expenditure of $500 for improvements on each claim, which made a total cost of about $37.50 per acre, and for his mill site on non-mineral ground, he was charged $5.00 per acre, plus expense of surveying and patenting, plus requirements for improvements and use. Compared with the homestead entryman who is given patent to non-mineral land with no charge whatever, upon the expenditure of $1.25 per acre for improvements, the generosity to the miner is not discernible.

Curtailment of the miners’ field, and restriction of his operations, to a greater or less extent, came from time to time, in the withdrawal of public lands, mainly in the mining regions, for national parks and monuments, Indian reservations, national forests, etc. Most of such withdrawals were wisely made for public interest, and had the approval of the thoughtful miner, even though his personal interest suffered.

New Conditions Arise

Assuming that the mining law was correct when passed in 1872, the first great error in the administration of mineral lands was one of omission, viz., failure to recognize and provide for intelligent handling of the so-called contact-metamorphic type of copper deposits which became important in the ‘30’s.
This type of ore deposit, common in Arizona, with Bisbee as the classic example, became the setting for a continuing struggle to make a deposit consisting of hundreds of ore bodies without regularity, as to size, shape, position, depth, outcrop, or continuity, conform with a law designed to regulate a tabular vein or lode, between walls with traceable strike and outcrop.

An addition to the difficulties, came, in the first decade of the twentieth century, when another type of copper deposit was developed that had not been dreamed of when the mining law was written. This is the disseminated copper deposit, occurring in immense bodies underlying square miles of surface, and usually without outcrop, or semblance to vein or lode. Here ore is steam shoveled from bodies often hundreds of acres in extent, with hundreds if not thousands of acres more, required for plant, water supply, and tailing disposal.

Law Becomes Stumbling Block

The size, shape and characteristics of these deposits of ore could not be changed to fit the law, but how easily could the law have been enlarged to fit these deposits. As it was, the law intended “to promote the development of the mining resources of the United States,” became the stumbling block that threw the miners of two types of copper deposits into years of bickering and litigation among themselves, with their government, and with hostile individuals, seeking to profit from the expenditures of the mining company.

Provisions of the mining law most flagrantly impractical, and directly responsible for most of the difficulties of the miners, are listed as follows:
1. Making a vein or lode the basis of a mining location with length along that vein and width on each side.
2. Requiring actual discovery of mineral in place of each claim at time of location, regardless of geological conditions or size of group.
3. Granting apex or lateral extra rights on all mining locations regardless of the type of ore occurrence.
4. Restricting ground for mill site purposes to five acres for each mining claim.
5. Making actual use of mill site, prerequisite to obtaining patent.

To these direct provisions by law or regulation, must be added the practice of granting homesteads on land adjacent to mining claims, and obviously of value for mining purposes.

How these difficulties were overcome sufficiently that mining could survive, is a story of persistence, and resourcefulness, on part of the miners and mining companies, in fighting their various cases before courts and department officials. Sympathy for the predicament of the miner was almost uniformly shown, and the mining law was stretched and contorted, by decision, and department ruling, to meet the problems that arose.

The first-named provision was, by common consent, ignored. The label “Presumed course of vein” for the center line of each claim shown on the mineral surveyor’s map, took the place of the statutory provision.

The requirement of “discovery” on each claim, has caused the miner untold trouble, needless expense, and uncertainty. Most of the states in the metal mining region have attempted to cure this defect in the federal statutes by giving the locator additional time, and requiring additional work such as excavating a discovery shaft or cut. In Arizona, the locator is given 90 days within which to sink a discovery shaft, four feet by six feet in cross-section, eight feet deep or deeper, until mineral is discovered in place. The Land Department has ruled that “the statute is satisfied when minerals have been discovered, and the evidence is sufficient to justify a person of ordinary prudence, in making an expenditure of labor and money, with reasonable prospect of success in developing a profitable mine.” The courts have kindly supplemented the mining statute, and protected the locator who has no surface outcrop, as long as he was diligently prosecuting his discovery work.

Such concessions have enabled a fair proportion of miners to “get by”, but what feeble gestures of relief to the miner who is up against the necessity of sinking through 1,100 feet of wash and conglomerate, to make discovery of the underlying ore, as was done at Miami by Van Dyke, or drilling through some 400 feet of lava rock to chicken catch

the faulted extension of the great Vulture Gold Vein, as was recently done by Finlayson.

Land office commissioners have come, held sway, and gone, each with his own idea of how this law should be applied, and the mineral examiners have varied widely in their interpretations of what constituted a valid mineral discovery. In many cases, patent has been allowed to mining claims with doubtful discoveries, a practice clearly in line with the title of the mining law, and previous expressions of Congress. In other cases, however, mining claims covering ground desired, and needed by bona fide companies, for mining purposes, have been rejected for patent. The result is a continuing state of uncertainty.

The question of apex rights in mining camps where such rights could not be applied practically, has generally been settled by the miners themselves, each agreeing to claim no extra lateral rights.

As for mill site, the mining law, when passed, presumed a miner working a quartz -vein in the hills, extracting a few tons daily of high-grade ore, which he must crush and amalgamate to recover the gold and silver. Water was necessary for his milling operation, so the law provided that for each mining claim, there could be a mill site of five acres on non-mineral ground, which was usually selected near some stream, below the mine.

From such conditions, to the conditions found, for instance at the camp of Miami in Arizona, 58 years after the law was passed, is such a far step, that it is difficult to realize that both operations belong to the same industry. There is more tonnage of ore handled by one company in the camp of Miami in a single day, than was handled by all of the mining operations in Arizona through the entire year of 1872, and the discarded tailing of that day, doubtless carried more value than the ores of today.

Great as was the extent of mineral ground in this camp, it is far exceeded by the ground in use for mill, power, and shop plants, water supply, and tailing disposal, of the mines proper, to which must be added the railroad rights of way, the smelter, and its requirements for plant and slag disposal. Conditions are reversed. If five acres of mill site were needed for 20 acres of mineral ground when the law was written, 20 acres of mill site for five acres of mineral ground would be more appropriate now.

What industrial company would think of spending money for plant, without first having all of the ground needed for its program of operation, yet the mining company is placed in a position where it must spend thousands upon thousands of dollars to develop ore bodies, and take a chance of getting the ground needed for its operation, a requisite as essential as the ore deposit itself.

Picture the fact of one major copper company paying $15,000 for legal services alone, to induce its government to accept $5,000 for a thousand acres of land needed for tailing storage, well knowing that the same land would be donated cheerfully to individuals who, during three years, would spend $1.25 per acre on improvements.

Or another copper company, after spending millions of dollars on development and equipment, being driven to the extremity of filing mill sites, homesteads, and scrip, on the same public land, to insure getting ground that was absolutely necessary for the mining operation, and hauling tailing in trucks to dump on each five-acre mill site, to show the required “use.”

Or still another company being “stuck up” more effectively than at the point of a gun, for needed land that had been taken from the public domain under the guise of a homestead.

Court decisions and broad interpretations in land department rulings have helped, but have not cured the defects of the mining law. After all the years, there is no well-marked course by which a mining company can proceed efficiently and economically to develop certain common types of ore deposits, with assurance of obtaining ownership to the ground needed to make a successful operation.

Regardless of the intent of the law, the results have usually been that the rich and powerful mining company secured the land needed, the individual miner and small company, struggling for a foothold, suffered and perished under the law.

It is no discredit to Congress to have made no provision in its original law for mining operations, such as exists today, but it is not to the credit of our governing body to have ignored for 80 years, the existence of such enterprises, to the detriment of the industry and public welfare alike.

Mineral Land in Jeopardy

But if legislation to relieve the difficulties of the miner was neglected, another public land law was passed, the ultimate effect of which will drive the prospector from the hills, and let the fires of industry in the metal mining districts of the West, turn to cold ashes.

This is the stock-raising homestead law, which allows homestead entries in tracts of 640 acres on the surface of mineral lands. Just as effectively as the free and unrestricted use of the public domain by the miners drew forth the streams of wealth that built up our nation, the restrictions of this law will dry up those streams of wealth, and slowly force our proud country into picking dry bones, in the dog fight of the world.

Although the stock-raising homestead has been in force for over a decade, the workings of the law are not generally understood. At first glance, the idea seems reasonable. To allow the stockman to take up unoccupied mineral land, and graze his cattle on the surface, reserving the mineral contained to the government, sounds like good economy.

So much for the theory, but what of the practical results? Probably the best examples of the working of this law are found in the vicinity of Tucson, Arizona. Here, in the great Southwest, is a spot which a local newspaper in a special edition has called with much display, the “Hub” of Arizona mining.
On the same spot is an active Sunshine-Climate Club with a yearly fund for advertising nationally, the glories of Tucson. The influx of people as a result of this advertising, added to the normal growth, made an increase of over 10,000 people in the last census period, and precipitated a real estate boom. This boom brought new additions to the city, in every direction, and spread to outlying lands.

Then began an orgy of land grabbing on the public domain, which, with few excaptions, has ignored the boundaries of mining districts, and the existence of mining claims. It is fostered by self-appointed land agents, who, for a substantial fee will locate the homesteader more or less correctly on free government land.

Inducements held out to homesteaders are indicated by the following advertisement appearing recently in a Tucson daily paper, under the name of an established real estate firm:
Farms and Lands for Sale
“We have several choice relinquishments close in that are suitable for growing citrus fruits, that can be had at a sacrifice, as owners are compelled to sell. Have one with oil possibilities. It is a snap. Get your 640-acre homestead before the law is repealed. If you get a good homestead, you ought to clean up ten thousand in the next three years. Save rent, fuel, and not interfere with your job.”

Under such stimuli, homesteads have been plastered over mineral lands and mining claims in every direction from Tucson. The districts invaded include the Pima District, containing the camps of Mineral Hill, San Xavier, Olive Camp, Twin Buttes, and outlying properties. This district ranks third in Pima County as a metal producer, with a record of nearly $9,000,000 worth of gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc. The North Santa Rita Mountains, with the camps of Rosemont, Helvetia, and the placers of Greaterville, the Catalina Mountains to the Forest Reserve line, Canada del Oro, Tucson Mountains, and even the Silverbell Mountains, where the camp that ranks second to Ajo in metal production, is located.

So closely was the outlying area to Tucson shut off with barbed wire fences or posted with such signs as “PRIVATE PROPERTY, KEEP OUT, NO TRESPASSING” that the city felt compelled to lease 15,000 acres of public land in the Tucson Mountain foothills, so its citizens and visitors might have one spot to go for recreation, and see a patch of desert in its natural beauty. And, so far, the road which the city must build to the nearby Sentinel Hill, secured from the government as a park, has been blocked by “thrifty homesteaders” who demand plenty of cash for the necessary rights of way.

The only mining districts in the vicinity of Tucson that are saved from the homestead epidemic, are those on the Papago Indian reservation. Fortunately for both the miner and the Papago, free mining rights were retained when this reservation was set aside. So here the miner can prospect at will, secure in the knowledge that if he finds a mine, he can get title to the ground he needs for his operation, and to the Indian Mine Development, means a place to work and sell his products. And it may be relevant to remark that the greatest mining activity of the county is now found on this reservation.

Miner’s Objections to Law

It will be argued that stock-raising homesteads, over mining claims, do not prevent prospecting or mining. Theoretically, no, but how do the miners regard the policy?
No lesser authority than Morris J. Elsing, has said under oath, that with a stock-raising homestead on the surface, he could block any mining operation.

The writer has asked a question of more than 50 representative prospectors, miners, and mining men, in the Tucson area. The question was: “Would you enter a hostile stock-raising homestead to prospect?” Every answer was “No,” qualified in a few cases by the statement that if the speaker knew in advance where there was pay ore on such homestead, he might.

This attitude is not to be charged to stubborn obstruction of progress, or balking at something new and misunderstood; it means that the prospecting game will not stand the added penalties that the Homestead Act imposes.

True, the practical working of homesteads over mining claims, or vice versa, is not evident, but it is recognized that it will take years of litigation costing millions of dollars, to establish precedents that will suggest the actual operation of the law, and volunteers have not appeared to start the grist of litigation. Thus far, all of the litigation has been to the end of keeping mining claims and homesteads separated.

Objections to the stock-raising homestead on mineral land, voiced by men interested in developing mines are many, and below are summarized the more important reasons why a prospector would not make a mining location on a bona fide stock-raising homestead:

Disinclination to enter the premises owned and occupied by another, even though it be lawful to do so. To do so, violates the fundamental American principle that a man’s home is his castle.

The ever-present cause for dispute and misunderstanding in the conflict of interest between the surface, and the underground rights. Unless both parties are reasonable and conciliatory, violence is likely, and few prospectors will knowingly locate trouble.

Inability to furnish bond to indemnify the owner for damage to surface and improvements. This bond can be no less than $1,000, and may be more. The typical prospector opines that if he had $1,000 he wouldn’t be prospecting.

The rank injustice of placing the prospector in a position where he may be called upon to post several thousand dollars for the privilege of digging a prospect hole in ground, a whole section of which his government had donated to a fellow-citizen for spending $800 on improvements.

The near certainty of litigation. The respective rights of the owner of surface and the claimant of minerals are not clearly defined.

Inability to enlist capital on the vague rights obtainable. The prospector is proverbially poor until he has made his strike or sold his claims. He can usually do the location work and record the notices on a group of claims, but must get backing from some source, even to start deeper development. On the public domain, when the locations are completed, he has something tangible to sell. Monuments mark the ground, and the duly recorded location notice is his evidence of title. He is in possession of the ground with full right to show his prospective backer what he has, and explain what he expects to find.

On a stock-raising homestead, however, what can he offer for sale? An obligation to file a bond for $1,000 or more, a vague right to enter another man’s premises to prospect for and remove ore, being responsible for all damage done to surface or improvements, and an interest in a probable lawsuit? He might get his “man past these hazards and onto the ground, there to be greeted by the homesteader with the assurance that he won’t try to stop them from wasting their money, but he has been riding these hills for 20 years, and hasn’t seen any ore yet, and one time a geologist turned down the whole district around here. Even though such statement could have been made 20 years ago over the richest ore body of Miami, and though the prospector were standing on the surface of a second Miami, what chance would he have?

The inseparable connection between surface and mineral rights in certain common ore deposits.

If the prospector by some whim of fortune should make a location on a homestead, secure the necessary capital and disclose ore, it likely as not would be a big low-grade deposit which must be worked either by stripping, and steam shoveling, or by caving, and by either method of mining the surface is ruined. This forces the prospector to purchase the surface if the property is to be operated, regardless of price.

Perversion of Law Adds to Menace

The objections recorded above, it must be remembered, apply to the legitimate, stock-raising homestead, an entry made in good faith on unoccupied mineral ground for a home, and stock-raising purposes, and is by far the least objectionable case.

That is doubtless the type of homestead entry contemplated by the sponsors of the law, and the pity is that such are so rare.

Perversion of the law adds greatly to its menace. A large majority of entries under the guise of stock-raising homesteads are made purely for speculation, as suggested by the advertisement previously quoted.
When a stock-raising homestead is granted, over mining claims already located and legally held, but unpatented, it forces the claim owner into a contest before the Land Department, with the alternative of losing the surface rights of his claims. This action might become necessary at a time the claim owner is not able to meet the expense, and thus lose rights he has held for years.

In the Amole (Tucson Mountains), and Catalina Mining Districts, the closest mining districts to Tucson that have records of metal production, the ground, if it were not valuable for mineral, would be valuable for building lots and home sites. By no stretch of the imagination could such foothill and mountainous land be called of value principally for stock raising. Yet stock-raising homesteads have been filed over areas held for years for mining purposes, and still in process of development.

In some cases, homesteads have been filed over mining claims for the main purpose of blackmail. And there are hangers-on around every mining camp who will be waiting to file the new type of homestead over the surface of the mining claims, as soon as ore is found, and thereafter exact tribute from the miner for the use of the surface.
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The law does not prohibit claim owners from locating stock-raising homesteads, and in some cases this has been attempted. Sometimes applications are allowed, and sometimes rejected under conditions that appear identical. If the claim owner is allowed a homestead, he is sure of the property covered by his mining claims and homestead, but he is restricted to one homestead. Mines in the past have been developed by being free and open to one claimant after another, when the required assessment work was not done.

But in the common case of mining claims owned by a corporation, which, in the development stage, usually represents a miner and a few associates, even the protection above mentioned is denied. A corporation is not permitted to make a homestead entry, and any entry made by an individual for the benefit of the corporation, would be void if attacked.

On every hand are pitiable cases where miners have spent the labor oy year in developing claims as their means allowed, to a point where capital could be interested, only to have their hopes blasted by the loss of surface rights, that are just as essential to the mining operation, as is the ore beneath.

Many of the claims now in jeopardy were initiated years before the stock-raising homestead was perpetrated, and were held and worked, relying on the mining laws and customs for title to necessary ground, when the proper time came.

A government that undertook to lead the world in liberality to the mining industry, could not have intended to take from two gray-haired, bony handed mining partners, the ground they had faithfully worked according to law for 29 years, to donate to a homesteader of Mexican blood, requiring only that he make a total expenditure in three years’ time, of less than the value of one year’s assessment work upon the mining claims covered, or cause a 69-year-old citizen, now working for his living in Tucson, to trek 30 miles, night after night, to sleep on the homestead he located, to save the surface of mining claims on which he has spent over 20 years’ time and $40,000 in cash, or force a little corporation with a dozen stockholders to spend thousands of dollars in an effort to save from the greedy grasp of a real estate speculator, claims that have been held for years, and without which the chance for making a mine is blasted, and expenditures approaching $100,000 have been made in vain. Yet such are actual cases.

Public Land for Public Benefit

The public domain belonging to all the people, should be administered for
the greatest good to the public. If the public interest were served by granting stock raising homesteads to a few thousand individuals on mineral lands, the act would be justified, and the mining industry could be left to its fate, but what is the public gain?

If the nation needs more grazing land in the mining regions, such homesteads will add no acreage, because from the earliest pioneer days the surface of mining claims has been free and open for livestock to graze upon. Thousands of cattle in Arizona today, are watered from shafts sunk by the hopeful miner, in his search for ore, and graze at will on the surface of patented mining claims.

If added tax returns be the object, then the law is a failure because one acre of mineral ground pays more taxes than 12 acres of grazing land, and the government should encourage the patenting of mineral ground.

If the object be to secure added settlement of the mining regions, then the law is defeating its purpose by granting too much land in one entry. Within the radius where the value of land is due to its proximity to the city, homesteads of 160 acres would be taken almost as readily as sections, and thus give the sponsors of the Homestead Act four pseudo-settlers where one is now. This feature applies to mineral and non-mineral lands alike, and shows that in the vicinity of Tucson, Arizona, at least, the law is violating the fundamental principle of Republican Government, of the greatest good to the greatest number.

In a spot blessed by nature, with health-giving sunshine, the lands that belong to all of the people are being donated in large tracts, to a few of the people, who, in turn, are seeking to profit ten or fifty or a hundred fold, from others of the people, who, from necessity or choice, require a spot of that land on which to benefit from that sunshine.

On the other hand, is not public interest better served by granting patent to bona fide claimants of mineral ground? As previously shown in detail, the mineral claimant pays in cash to the government, and for required improvements, 24 times as much per acre, as does the homesteader. And when patent is issued, the mineral land is assessed for taxation at $87.50 per acre, which is 12% times greater than the assessed valuation of the same land, if titled as a homestead.

Every time a 20-acre mining claim is rejected for patent, the government must return the $100 offered in payment for the land, and $750 must be struck from the county tax rolls. The government is then willing to make another citizen a present of the same land, if he will spend a total of $25.00 for improvements, and the same 20 acres will then be returned to the tax rolls at a valuation of $60.00.

Here we have a picture of the government paying an examiner to search the rocky hillside, for a technicality on which to reject for patent, a mining claim that some man believed to be valuable for mining purposes, strongly enough to have spent at least $500 for improvements to the end that the national treasury may refund $100, the county tax roll lose $750, the mineral claimant lose his expenditures, and the land revert to the public domain, where it will be donated to some other citizen.

And what reasonable objection could there be to granting patent, under the present requirements for improvements and purchase, and after a substantial discovery of mineral had been made, to sufficient public land for a mining operation? A property that is unprofitable today, may be highly profitable under the changed metal prices and operating conditions of tomorrow. And if, even after complete development the property did not justify payment of the high taxes assessed against mining property, then it would revert to the state via the unpaid tax route, and be subject to re-sale for some other use. In the meantime, the operation benefited the community by being a field for labor, a market for supplies, and a source of substantial tax revenue.

There has been expressed in Congress the fear that mining corporations would obtain large tracts of public land if the mining law were liberalized, but opened the same mineral land to homestead entries where it is being taken by members of the same family in blocks of thousands of acres.

Miner’s Future Not Bright

In the midst of the most general and serious metal depression in the history of the United States, an inventory of the miner’s prospects, show that he will need all his storied hope, optimism, and courage, to face the future. The cream of the rich veins and placers, was skimmed before the close of the last century.

Scarcely an outcrop of any type remains in the Western states that has not been at least superficially explored. Many of such outcrops will doubtless be developed further, and new ore bodies brought to light, but the prospector will find it quite as difficult to locate the necessary capital, as ground, that shows proper promise.

Virgin deposits of the future will be found chiefly under wash formations and lava flows, which means that it will take long-time development, with no returns, before pay ore is found, or conditions disclosed, that might interest larger capital, than the prospector can control.

Unfortunately, these hard physical conditions are only half the miner’s problem. The impractical, expensive and uncertain conditions imposed by outgrown and inadequate mining statutes, still persist, and there is the added specter of a hostile homestead hovering over the surface of every unpatented mining claim on the public domain.

And to complete the vista of a dark and uncertain future, comes the cloud of a nation-wide agitation to turn the public domain back to the states, a plan sponsored by the one chief executive [Pres. Hoover, a mining engineer by trade] who should have known the problems of the miner, and realized the vital influence of his output on the prosperity of the nation. It is proposed, at this late date, to displace the American policy of free and unrestricted mining rights, by a foreign system of segregating surface ownership and mineral rights, on all remaining public land.

A commission to study the public land problem has been in existence for months, and the public is informed from time to time through the press, that the commission is investigating.” But the public of the states most affected knows that the commission has held no hearings in the localities where the public land business is most active, nor gathered first-hand information of actual conditions, on which to base conclusions. It would be unfair to comment on the work of this commission in advance of its final report, but in view of its personnel, and its sources of information and inspiration, even the most optimistic miner could not hope for relief from any of his problems in the recommendations of this commission.

After all the changes, developments and progress that the years have brought, we find the foundation of mining still resting on the prospector. But his task is incomparably more difficult than it was fifty years ago, when the chief requisites of a prospector were good legs to carry him over the hills, keen eyes to discern float, outcrop, or formation, and courage to keep going. He is confronting an eternal question. His life is given to a constant study of ore deposits from books and journals, from contacts with geologists and engineers, and first-hand from the mines where he works for a “grubstake”, and best of all, from the rocks of the hills.

Active national and state geological surveys, and mining bureaus, have been maintained for years, at heavy public expense, to gather and disseminate scientific information, the so-called “big companies” have their scouts, research and technical staffs, but it remains for the prospector to start the operations that bring to light new ore deposits.

For instance, do we find in the original government reports of the Globe Mining District, any suggestion that a few miles westerly lay an area that might far exceed the mines of the Globe camp in mineral wealth? Or do we find any record of the “big companies” paying scouts to tramp the hills that hid the great Miami copper mine, and to ponder on the relations of the Shultz granite, Pinal schist, and Gila conglomerate? Indeed not. It was “Black Jack” Newman, prospector, who recognized the possibilities, and started the exploration, that brought to light the underlying ore that lifted Arizona into the front rank as a copper-producing state. Years later, when the camp was producing millions of pounds of copper yearly, geologists of the state and national organizations, were engaged in mild controversies as to how it all happened.

It is not intended herein to belittle the work of governmental surveys and bureaus, which render necessary and valuable service to the mining industry, but to emphasize the fact that it is the prospector who takes the lead in finding new ore, to keep the industry alive, and all other agencies follow to explain, to develop, and to utilize.

From time to time it has been stated that the development of geophysical prospecting methods marks the passing of the old-time prospector. At the recent mining “Revival” in Tucson—which someone said, should have been called a “Wake”—J. J. Jakoski, in his illuminating lecture, stressed the point that geophysical prospecting is too expensive for indiscriminate use, and is intended rather to follow the prospector and confirm or disprove his theories, and to serve as a guide for scientific development.

Even if the frequent charges of inefficiency, misguided effort, and warped vision, were admitted, the prospector is still the one agent willing to make the effort, and in his graveyard of failures, will arise some monuments of success: paying mines.

To discourage and harass the prospector by restrictive and discriminative legislation, is to blast out the very foundation stones of the mining industry, in effect, to “kill the goose that lays the nation’s golden egg.”

Mineral Land Must Be Conserved

Under conditions like the present when all the metals, except gold, are drugs on the market, it is difficult to visualize a dearth of metals, but the surplus will be absorbed, the present sources exhausted, and new production needed, just as surely as world progress continues. The “comeback” of metals is but a question of time, and if our nation is to hold its place through the centuries, every possible source of metals must be conserved, and encouragement given for orderly development against the time when such metals will be needed.

Today, there pours into our country from Africa, South America, Mexico, and Canada, streams of copper, considerable of which might be purchased cheaper than the production cost of our own material, but who could favor diverting the hundreds of millions of dollars annually, that pays the nation’s metal bill, from our own mining centers, to the mines of foreign lands, even though owned by American capital.

And it takes no great imagination to picture a time when it might be inconvenient to ship in such copper. The very existence of America might hinge on the use of metals which she has, and yet has not. And when such a condition does arise, there will be no time to prospect, develop, and produce the metals, that lie unknown within her borders.

It is recognized that there are many important matters claiming the attention of Congress at this time, but there are none more important to the material welfare of the nation, or deserving quicker action, than the matter of conserving the mineral lands.

The shortcomings of the mining law doubtless are felt more keenly in Arizona than in any other state, and it should be recorded that the representatives in Congress, from Arizona, regardless of party affiliation, have worked faithfully for amendments that would correct the injustices, that the old law is working on the miners of the state.

rehab · GENERAL INTEREST QUIP TMJ 3 15 1931

THE MINING JOURNAL 3 15 1931

The material excavated in a single year of operation by the Utah Copper Company is greater than the total amount excavated in the digging of the Panama Canal.

rehab · EMJ APRIL 30 1927 ANCIENT COPPER SMELTING

Vol.123, No.18
ENGINEERING AND MINING JOURNAL
APRIL 30, 1927

Ancient Copper Smelting

TO THE EDITOR:
Sir—Mr. Walker has the best of me in regard to Bangweolo! How that name replaced Benguella is more than I can say; it is the kind of slip that the French impute to la malice des choses—the cussedness of things. Of course, as the context shows, I was quoting Mr. Walker’s statement in regard to the shipment of copper early in the seventeenth century, from the port of Benguella. I am as well aware of the separate identities of Bangweolo and Benguella, as well as those of Spokane and Seattle; however, some of my readers are not, and so Mr. Walker makes a justifiable correction, at my expense.

The point at issue, however, is whether the copper shipped from Benguella came from the Katanga, 1,100 miles distant, or from a nearer source, which, I suggested, was Bembe, less than a hundred miles from the West Coast. Even the statement quoted from Monteiro does not help us much. In the first place, a casual remark that the Portuguese had mined copper at Bembe, or elsewhere, 350 years ago is not convincing in the absence of evidence, preferably from Portuguese sources; next, we are discussing “ancient” copper mining in Central Africa, in the interior of the continent, and not at a place near the coast. Moreover, whether the mining was done two hundred or four hundred years ago, that would not warrant the adjective “ancient.”

If there be “abundant evidence that more copper was mined prehistorically (my italics) in Africa than all the rest of the world,” it should be forthcoming. The fact that one does not know with certainty when the primitive mining in the Katanga was done, nor by whom it was done, precludes any such confident statement.

I gave my opinion that it was done during the last two hundred years by the natives under the direction of of the Arabs. That they penetrated the interior— “war-cursed, man-eating, lion-infested,” as Mr. Walker says—is proved by statements of the Portuguese historians. De Barros (1496-1570) records the fact that the Portuguese traded with the Arabs at Sofala, and that these obtained gold by personal dealings with the natives of Monomotapa, the region of the old mines of Rhodesia, made famous by another archaeological mare’s nest—namely, Zimbabwe.

Dr. Hans Sauer told me that, in 1894, he found a stone temple of apparently Arab origin at a place 50 miles southeast of Bulawayo, and that at this place he and his companions gathered 800 oz. of alluvial gold scattered on the ground, as if left by owners that had fled from a predatory raid. He found also one Portuguese bronze cannon and an iron cannon, of English make, both of them of fifteenth century manufacture.

This locality is still far from the Katanga, but it indicates that the Arabs did penetrate the African hinterland. Mr. Walker quotes P. K. Homer. Yes, I know Mr. Homer quite well, and if I referred to him as “an English mining engineer,” he will, I trust, pardon me, with a smile. When an engineer has his office in London and acts for English clients, he is not far from meriting the description. However, that is by the way; Mr. Homer, by his long familiarity with the Katanga, is well qualified, as Mr. Walker suggests, to give valuable evidence on this disputed question.

If he, Dr. Sauer,
F. E. Studt, and others whom I could name, will assist in throwing light upon the identity of the people that worked the Katanga copper mines, and will give also data concerning the period of that exploitation, the readers of this journal will be grateful, and historic research will be enriched.

T. A. RIcKARD.
San Francisco, Calif.
732

rehab · EMJ OCTOBER 07 1922 SILICOSIS ON THE RAND

618 Engineering and Mining Journal-Press Vol. 114, No. 15 OCTOBER 7 1922

SILICOSIS on the Rand

AMONG the many things that have been done well on the Rand have been the efforts to lessen the ravages of SILICOSIS among the miners in the gold mines, and the system whereby the victims of the disease, or their families, are compensated. In 1919, a compensation fund was established, and under it a liability estimated at £8,000,000 was created, besides starting three farm settlements for those afflicted with PHTHISIS, which in the South African mines takes the form of silicosis, which may be described as the injury done to the tissue of the lungs, by the siliceous dust made in breaking ore and rock, in the mines and mills.

It is estimated now that owing to the increasing proportion of those afflicted, as compared with those dropping out of the list of beneficiaries, and the number of those passing from the primary, to the secondary stage, of the disease, the mining companies face a liability capitalized at £14,000,000. If one mine cannot pay its levy, it is distributed among the other mines. The miners used to pay 2 ½ percent of their earnings to the fund, but that has ceased. In future, the liability of each mine will be assessed each year, and the company owning the mine will be debited with the amount.

In 1918, the ravages of SILICOSIS on the Rand were the subjects of earnest discussion, because it became known then that not only the miners, but the managers and engineers, had been ruined in health by the disease. The report of the Miners’ PHTHISIS Board for the half-year ending Jan. 31, 1913, made this ‘distressful statement:

“A miner with nine and one-half years’ underground service, whose expectation of life under normal circumstances should be twenty-six years, has one and one-half years to live [from this point forward]; with four and one-half years underground, normal life expectation twenty-seven years, has three and one-eighth years to live; with three years underground, normal expectation thirty-one years, has three and one-half years to live.” This appalling decrease in the underground miner’s expectation of life, was a shock to the mining community, and stimulated an earnest effort to use such methods of drilling, with water sprays, as would diminish the quantity of dust in the mines. Those efforts were successful in large part, but they did not suffice to eradicate the evil, as is now evident.

The disease, of course, exists among miners in this country, in places where drilling is done in siliceous rock, yielding minute and sharp particles of quartz, but fortunately it is rarely that any one of our mines presents conditions identical with those on the Rand, where the ore is a conglomerate of quartzose pebbles between sandstone walls.

[Rehab notes, this same problem in any quartz rock mine, could kill the miner within several months, and though lessened by the use of water in hollow drill steel, did not stop the affliction. For example, in the Delamar, NV mines, miner life expectancy from beginning of work, to point of death, was 8 months. This due to dry mechanized drilling. In modern mining, including concrete and tile tradesmen, and other construction personnel, even with water sprays and other forms of dust control, the hazards continue to persist, though not at the mortality rate of years past.]

TIDBITS OF INFO- MINER INTEREST

MINING BOOMS LETTER TO THE EDITOR EMJ 9-23-1922

TRUE TALK FROM A MINER EMJ 9 23 1922

MINING TIDBITS THE MINING JOURNAL 12 15 1930

MINING TIDBITS THE MINING JOURNAL 6 30 1931

SAFETY FUSE USE AND CARE MINING JOURNAL 8 15 1931

PERFECT SAFETY AT JEROME, AZ TMJ 6 30 1929

4 STEPS TO MAKE A MINE TMJ 6 30 1929

THE PROSPECTOR PROBLEMS TMJ 9 30 1929

HEALTH HAZARDS FROM DUST IN MINES TMJ 9 30 1929

ACCIDENTS FROM FALL OF MEN & MATERIALS TMJ 9 30 1929

ROCK AND MUD FLY SAFETY NOTICE TMJ 9 30 1929

TERRIBLE EDITH MINE RESCUE, IDAHO TMJ 10 15 1929

LETHAL ROCK GASES IN MINING DISTRICTS TMJ 10 15 1929

A I M E MEETING IN SF, CA TMJ 10 30 1929

US GOV SILVER PURCHASES DISACCORD TMJ 10 30 1929

IMPORTANCE OF ASSESSMENT WORK TMJ 10 30 1929

TWO PROSPECTORS TMJ 6 30 1943

MISCELLANEOUS MINE NEWS WORD POST TMJ 3 30 1934

RATCLIFFE CONCENTRATOR MACHINE TMJ 3 15 1933

SMALL MINER AID TMJ 5 15 1939

SILVER MINE IN PERU PIC EMJ 1922

MINE TAX CRISIS IN UTAH TMJ 11 30 1929

MINE ACCIDENTS SUMMARY TMJ 9 30 1929

IMPRESSIONS WHEN DEEP UNDERGROUND TMJ 11 30 1929

EXECUTIVE ORDER L-208 REVISION TMJ 9 15 1943

DRIFTS & CROSSCUTS UTAH TAX TMJ 11 30 1929

D & C- ROMANCE OF THE RAILS TMJ 11 30 1929

D & C- BLASTING CAP DANGER TMJ 11 30 1929

BANKERS AND INVESTING TMJ 1 15 1930 D&C

1930'S ENVIRNMNTL LAW NOW THE CASE TMJ 1 15 1930 D&C

NW-STERN PORPHYRY COPPER PROSPECTS TMJ 1 15 1930

INTENT OF THE MINING JOURNAL 6 30 1930

GOLD OVERPRODUCTION WORRIES TMJ 6 30 1930

FLOOD ROCK BLAST, LONG ISLAND, NY 6 30 1930

D & C- EDITORIALS TMJ 7 15 1930

MINING IN AFRICA OVERVIEW TMJ 7 15 1930

MINERAL CONF AT GRANTS PASS, OR TMJ 7 15 1930

MACKAY SOM HAS NEW MINERALS TMJ 7 15 1930

MINER'S FIELD DAY IN BUTTE, MT TMJ 8 15 1930

NEW PLANT AT GOLD HILL NV MINE (ROUND MTN) TMJ 8 15 1930

MINERS WILL ANSWER TO CA FOREST RANGERS TMJ 8 15 1930

IGNORANCE VS NEW TECHNOLOGY TMJ 8 30 1930

AMERICAN METALS TO MOVE INTO S AFRICA TMJ 10 30 1930

MORE LAND RIGHTS ISSUES TMJ 12 30 30

FURTHER THOUGHTS ON ORE DEPOSITION TMJ 2-15-1931

A FEW MINING ADS MINER INTEREST

WHERE DOES ORE COME? FROM TMJ 12 30 30

CONSERVE THE MINERAL LANDS MINING JOURNAL 2 28 1931

GENERAL INTEREST QUIP TMJ 3 15 1931

EMJ APRIL 30 1927 ANCIENT COPPER SMELTING

EMJ OCTOBER 07 1922 SILICOSIS ON THE RAND